DONNA L. GRAHAM, University of Arkansas
Taken from the Encyclopedia of Agricultural Science, Volume 1, p. 415-430. Edited by Charles J. Arntzen, Academic Press, 1994.
Cooperative Extension System (national system) and Cooperative Extension Service (state partner) National system is a unique organizational structure consisting of the federal partner (ES-USDA), state partners (extension services, units of land-grant colleges and universities), and local partners of city/county governments
Extension Also called the Cooperative Extension Service; the third partner in the land-grant system created by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914
Extension activity Planned educational event such as a meeting, field day, workshop, or demonstration that is part of an educational program
Extension educators Professional employees of the state extension service of the land-grant institution and the Extension Service-USDA who may be employed at the county, multicounty or state level; also called extension agents, county agents, agriculture agents, home economists, 4-H agents or specialists
Extension program Educational effort guided by objectives, including a variety of activities that are planned conducted, and evaluated for their impact on participants' learning needs over a period of time
Land-grant college/ university Institution of higher education With distinct functions of teaching, research and service; created by the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890, and expanded by the Hatch Act of 1887, the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, and subsequent legislation
Nonformal education Out-of-school noncredit educational experiences
Paraprofessionals Paid nonprofessional aides or technicians who work on specific assignments and are supervised by extension educators
Volunteers Unpaid lay and professional persons who offer their services in support of the CES organization and its educational programs, often taking on the role of educator under the supervision of professional extension educators
1890 University and Tuskegee University Historically black land-grant institutions in 16 southern states created by the Morrill Act of 1890
The Cooperative Extension System (CES) is the world's largest network of out-of-school nonformal education. It is a publicly funded national system that links the education and research units of the land-grant universities with local communities. Extension does not offer credit courses, give grades, or grant degrees but works with people in their homes and communities to offer programs to solve local problems. This is accomplished by a network of 16,000 extension educators in 50 states and four territories.
I. What Is Extension?
The Cooperative Extension Service (CES) was created by the Smith-Lever Act in 1914. As the name implies, it is a cooperative educational relationship among three levels of government. The federal partner is the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the state partner is the land-grant university, and the county partner is local government. It is an extension or outreach of the land-grant university and the USDA to the people of each state. Educational or technical information is provided as a service to help solve the problems directly affecting the people of the state. This cooperative arrangement provides for three sources of public funds for extension work and three levels of perspective for educational programs. Although each partner has its own responsibilities and authorities, the extension system serves a common mission of "helping people help themselves." [See EDUCATION: UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE UNIVERSITY; USDA: A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH.]
Cooperative extension differs from other educational institutions because its programs are planned by local people. The classroom is the local community and participation is voluntary. The subject matter is practical and useful and is intended for immediate use, for example, providing assistance with insect control, low cholesterol diets, organic gardening, parenting, financial planning, or feed rationing. A large volunteer base assists in delivering extension programs to adults and youth. The audience that uses extension services is large and diverse-over 22 million families are served. Some 62% of the people who participate are female, and more than 40% are over age 40. About 64% live in metropolitan areas, 42% in small towns, and 23% in cities.
The extension agent has a broad educational background in the physical and biological sciences and uses the behavioral sciences in implementing change. Historically, agents have been hired in positions of agriculture, home economics, and related subjects in adult and youth work. A variety of teaching methods are used, but emphasis is on demonstration for a "learn by doing" approach. Staff time allocated to these teaching methods is about 54% to individual contact, 40% to group methods, and 6% to mass media educational efforts.
II. The Foundation of Extension Work
Extension evolved from a situation of separate needs of American society-the improvement of a rural agrarian society and the education of the common people. The nation depended on agriculture at the turn of the century. Off-campus education in agriculture and home economics was greatly needed. American leaders such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson had previously advocated a national agency to teach about agriculture. Rural leaders in agriculture societies pressed Congress for educational assistance in agriculture. An education that was predominantly in the classics or professions such as medicine, ministry, or law was not financially accessible to the common person, who needed the option of obtaining an education in business and trade.
The Morrill Act of 1862 was the first in a series of revolutionary ideas in American education. This act provided for the establishment of at least one college in each state at which the objective was to teach agriculture and the mechanical arts without excluding other scientific and classical studies. The act promoted a liberal and practical education of the industrial classes, a compromise between the two educational factions of that time. These colleges had very meager beginnings. The money from the sale of federal land that was to be used to endow each college was very insufficient. The lack of qualified teachers and textbooks and the suspicion of "book learning" among farmers were other problems.
In 1890, Congress passed the second Morrill Act, which provided funds to sustain these colleges and stipulated equitable distribution in appropriations for all individuals, regardless of race. This led to the establishment of separate land-grant institutions for educating black students in agriculture and mechanical arts. Seventeen 1890 land-grant institutions, including the Tuskegee Institution, were covered by this federal legislation.
The research component of the land-grant system was established by the Hatch Act of 1887. This act created an experiment station at every land-grant college to conduct research supporting agricultural instruction. The Hatch Act also established a system of cooperative funding between the USDA and land-grant institutions. The experiment stations were charged with publishing reports of research findings and disseminating this information to the farmer. However, more contact was needed with farm families if country life was to improve. [See AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.]
The idea of a third partner in this land-grant system was advocated by a number of national leaders and organizations. Farmers Institutes, the Chautauqua correspondence courses, and the university extension movement were only a few of the efforts being made to reach rural people but Seaman A. Knapp, called the "father of the Extension movement," is credited with starting cooperative demonstration work that greatly influenced the legislation for extension and created the model for early extension work.
Knapp had wide experience in agriculture as a farmer, professor of agriculture, and president of Iowa Agricultural College. His position as a plant introduction agent for the Department of Agriculture gave him first-hand knowledge about how slowly farmers changed production practices. Knapp is often quoted as saying, "What a man hears, he may doubt; what he sees, he may possibly doubt; but what he does, he cannot doubt."
While trying to demonstrate modern agricultural practices to farmers in Louisiana and Texas, Knapp realized that local involvement and support, not government-run demonstrations, were crucial elements in the adoption of new practices. Knapp convinced W. C. Porter of Terrell, Texas, to set up a demonstration farm at his own expense and follow USDA cultivation recommendations. The profits were more than Porter anticipated, and the demonstration method spread throughout the country.
In 1904, the demonstration method was used to address an emergency situation with the cotton boll weevil. The problem was so severe that local businessmen offered to pay most of the expenses if an agent would work full time with farmers in one county; thus the idea of the county agent was established. This work was so successful that it led to the hiring of agents in many Southern states. An agreement with Clemson College to conduct extension work and demonstration work set the pattern for other colleges and for the legislation that would follow.
This demonstration method of instruction soon spread to youth and homemakers. Corn clubs and tomato clubs for boys and girls were formed in many communities. Schools became involved, providing an added avenue for young people to increase their agricultural knowledge. Growing corn, gardening techniques, and food preparation were more easily taught to rural youth than to their resistant parents. [See EDUCATION: CHILDREN AND YOUTH.]
Farm wives were encouraged to attend farmer club and agricultural society meetings. As early as 1903, over 15 states were offering "Institutes" especially for women. Early organizations for women in the Midwest, called "domestic science associations," were formed to teach the practice of better methods in the home and to promote domestic science in the schools. Other names for these organizations included neighborhood study clubs, homemaker clubs, farm women clubs, or home bureaus. [See WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE.]
The first home demonstration clubs associated with extension in the South developed from the girls' canning clubs. As mothers became involved with their daughters in the tomato clubs, the home demonstration agents took advantage of the opportunity to demonstrate improved methods of housework. This method was an efficient use of time for the demonstration agent and a rare opportunity for socialization for farm wives. Agents employed in other regions of the United States encouraged the development of county extension organizations at which local leaders presented educational information learned at training schools.
The success of this method of teaching rural America gained support for a national system of extension work. The agricultural colleges and experiment stations were requesting federal funds for an extension unit of the land-grant system. The County Life Commission appointed by President Roosevelt recommended a national extension system to help educate the rural population. After 32 bills and several years of debate over the control, mission and methods of the organization, Congress passed the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, creating a third mission of the land-grant colleges with a cooperative funding arrangement and working relationship that is now modeled around the world.
III. Mission and Objectives
To understand the mission and objectives of the Extension Service, it is necessary to understand the history and visionary philosophy inherent in the Smith-Lever Act. This legislation set the direction and boundaries of extension work according to the people to be served, the subject matter to be included, and the methods to be used. The language of the Smith-Lever Act explains this mission as being
The CES continues to provide useful information from the university and scientific community. Extension educators act as change agents with the freedom to develop programs that are based on the needs and expressed desires of the people that evolve from broader contemporary issues. The flexibility of the CES allows for change in the organizational structure, to focus on emerging issues that impact the quality of life for Americans. This flexibility and continual needs assessment keeps the CES viable and sustains the mission of Smith-Lever.
IV. Organizational Structure
Each state operates almost autonomously yet has a similar organizational structure. The state extension services of the 1862 institutions are led by directors, appointed by the university with agreement from the Secretary of Agriculture. 1890 land-grant extension programs are directed by an administrator. Both the director and the administrator report to the head of the division of agriculture in the state, usually titled Dean or Vice President.
Specialists are traditionally organized into units of agriculture and natural resources, home economics, 4-H, and youth and community development. They are supervised by a state leader who has considerable authority for personnel, budgeting, and other program resources. These specialists are generally located in academic departments with their teaching and research counterparts. Many have joint appointments in research or teaching.
The field staff is divided into extension districts, which are supervised by a district director. The directors are assisted by one or more district program leaders who assist field staff in developing relevant local programs.
Each county has a county director/coordinator/leader who is responsible for certain administrative responsibilities such as the county budget and the coordination of the county program. Agents at the field staff level have primary assignments in areas of agriculture, home economics, and 4-H youth work. Some agents are hired with special funds targeted to specific audiences, for example, horticulture, small farmer, or expanded foods and nutrition education programs.
The federal extension service is headed by an administrator who is appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. Federal extension employees also work in program areas providing leadership in national program initiatives, funding, and evaluation.
Many factors influence the organization of extension, including the needs of the people; federal, state, and county laws; formal agreements; institutional policies; the Association of State Universities and LandGrant Colleges; and the relationship with farm organizations and other agencies.
V. Professional Staff
The professional extension staff totals over 16,000 nationally; over half directly serves the public in one of the 3,150 county units. There is an average of 3 agents per county with a range of 1 to 20. State subject matter specialists, representing 33% of the staff, are the most specialized segment of the professional staff. A few professional staff members work at the federal level. Additionally, there are thousands of paraprofessionals working alongside the professional staff, as well as three million volunteers. The CES is like a pyramid with a broad base of local volunteer leaders served by county extension agents who are, in turn, supported by state specialists and federal staff.
Thus, the professional staff is a combination of these positions:
A. Educational Requirements
The bachelor's degree is the minimum educational requirement of county professional staff, but many states now require a master's degree to enter employment. All states require agents to qualify for graduate school and agents are expected to complete a master's degree during a given period of time. About 3% of the current staff have a doctoral degree, 61% have a master's degree, and 36% have a bachelor's degree. Over 62% of the specialists have a doctoral degree, 30% have a master's degree, and 8% have a bachelor's degree. Most states require a doctoral degree to be hired as a specialist.
Extension has undergone many organizational changes since its creation. The county agents were the first employees, thus providing the "grass-roots" approach of meeting the needs of local people using a minimum of administrators during that time. The specialist structure began to take shape in the 1920s and really expanded with increased specialization of the biological sciences. Multicounty specialists, such as area agents, became common in many states in the 1960s and multicounty assignments are frequently used in many states for county agents today.
B. Professional Staff Development
Extension educators are encouraged to continually improve their skills through an on-going training pro gram called in-service training. Staff development and training programs are important components of the administrative function. The training may involve orientation training for the new employee, in-service training of all employees to improve subject matter knowledge or skills, and advanced training for those in administrative positions. In-service and professional development activities include credit courses, noncredit courses, workshops, short courses, seminars, conferences, and other field-based experiences. Specialists are usually in charge of the in-service subject matter training provided to field agents.
TABLE I
Number and Full-Time Equivalents of Professionals Supported by CES
in 1991
| Position |
|
|
|
| Director/Assistant Director |
|
|
|
| Administration |
|
|
|
| Specialists |
|
|
|
| Supervisor |
|
|
|
| County Agent |
|
|
|
| Total |
|
|
|
Source: Extension Service, United States Department of Agriculture (1991). FTE, full time equivalent.
Several organizations are available to assist in the professional development of the employee. These include the state affiliates of the National Association of County Agricultural Agents, the National Association of Extension Home Economists, the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents, and the honor societies of Epsilon Sigma Phi and Gamma Sigma Delta. Additionally, specialists can associate with discipline-related research societies, or specialists' associations.
VI. Program Development
Whereas the early extension agents acted as "service agents," today's agents have a more systematic approach to serving clientele. Agents use a program development process involving lay people to help identify local problems, establish priorities, set objectives, and determine appropriate actions to reach these objectives. The identification of the target audience and the problems of those to be served is fundamental to this process. Local advisory groups, committees, or focus groups are used to help agents make these decisions. A plan of work, a document specifying educational goals or objectives and activities planned to reach the goals, is developed on an annual and a 4-year basis. State plans of work must be approved by the federal administrator. State and federal budgeting is allocated based on an approved plan of work, and a review of these expenditures is made according to the legal authorization. Many federal funds are "ear-marked" for special programs or audiences such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) or the Expanded Foods and Nutrition Educational Program (EFNEP).
TABLE II
Educational Level of Cooperative Extension Personnel
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Bachelors Degree |
|
|
|
|
| Master's Degree |
|
|
|
|
| Doctoral Degree |
|
|
|
|
| Total |
|
|
|
|
Historically, extension programs have focused on major issues in traditional discipline areas with associated clientele groups in agriculture, home economics, and 4H/youth. Although these are still important, many of the issues of today are complex and require a more multidisciplinary approach to problem solving. In 1987, extension initiated the concept of "issues programming" to address the rapid changes in the global economy, environment, demographics, family structures and values, social interactions, and sustainability of resources. Issues based on broad societal needs are identified as priorities for extension programming at the national level. Current initiatives are focused on water quality, food safety, family and economic well-being, developing human capital, decisions for health, youth at risk, and communities in transition. These initiatives become more specific as they are implemented at the state and county level. For example, programming in water quality may be focused on the complex factors that contribute to water quality, such as fertilizers or animal waste. Initiative efforts in decisions for health may focus on the factors that affect nutrition and health-food additives, food safety, cholesterol, or biotechnology. The focus of the educational programming of the initiatives is determined by the needs of the local community. National initiatives are continued or refocused on a regular basis. New initiatives are identified from emerging issues by a Strategic Planning Council within the extension system.
An important component of the program development process is evaluation. It is important to know whether the goals and objectives of the planned programs are being met. The evaluation process may include determining the number of participants or the reaction of the participants; measuring changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or aspirations; and determining practice changes or the end results of an adopted behavior. Determining the overall effectiveness of a program helps improve the quality of the extension program.
VII. Extension Methods
The job of an extension agent is that of influencing change in people's knowledge, attitudes, skills, and practices; providing instruction is the primary means of accomplishing this. A variety of teaching methods have developed over the past 80 years that are used to influence change. Each has its own limitations and advantages, but to know how and where to provide these experiences is the mark of the professional extension worker.
Methods can be classified as individual, group, or mass media. Learning experiences provided individually include visits, office calls, telephone calls, mail request, and correspondence courses. Learning experiences provided in groups include the result demonstration, method demonstration, training meetings, tours, field days, workshops, clinics, schools, short courses, achievement days, contests, and camps.
Learning experiences provided through mass media include news articles, columns pages, feature stories, direct mail, exhibits, fairs, radio and television, and printed publications. Learning experiences are enhanced through aids to extension education programs, which include visual and auditory aids, satellite programs, computers, and electronic mail.
Although all agents use a variety of teaching methods, agricultural agents generally tend to use more individual methods than the other agents. Farm visits and on-farm demonstrations model the early farm demonstration method of providing research-based recommendations to the local producer. An example of this today is a soil fertility demonstration to illustrate fertilizer application rates for a certain crop to determine which of the major nutrients-nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium-will give the best yield response Another variation of this on-farm method is the verification trial. These trials, which involve a total production cycle, are demonstrations supervised by the local agent to "verify" current research recommendations.
Other available assistance in agricultural work includes diagnostic services, soil testing, livestock performance testing, structures planning service, and advisory services based on individual problems. Computerized optimum production programs are also used to serve agriculture producers.
Extension has also developed a "train-the-trainer" or master volunteer approach in the past few years, the most successful of which is the Master Gardener Program. A volunteer receives approximately 70 hr of intensive subject matter training to become a master volunteer. These master volunteers become extensions of the agent, providing assistance to clientele by individual and group teaching. Other successful master volunteer programs are the Master Food Preserver and Master Financial Planner.
Extension home economists and 4-H youth agents generally work more with group methods. Teaching individuals through an organized club format has developed into a traditional group method of instruction and has built an on-going clientele base for home economists and 4-H youth agents. The 4-H clubs and the Family Community Education (FCE) clubs have been continuous group teaching methods in extension work since its beginning, and now constitute major components of an agent's job responsibilities.
A. The 4-H Program
4-H is the youth development program of the CES. The 4-H program aims to provide educational training for youth aged 5-19 through project work, leadership and citizenship programs, and numerous educational activities.
The 4-H program in each state is part of a national educational system. It is conducted by over 545,000 volunteers in cooperation with county extension personnel and supported by resources from the land-grant university, ES-USDA, and the National 4-H Council. 4-H was founded in the early 1900s as a way of teaching agricultural production techniques. Today there are over 5.6 million members in the United States with similar programs in 24 countries.
The 4-H emblem is the four-leaf clover, with the letter H on each leaf. These four Hs represent the equal training of the head, heart, hands, and health, signifying the emphasis on the total development of the individual. The strong base of project work helps 4-H youth acquire knowledge (head "H") and skills (hands "H"). Development of the heart "H" is stressed through community service and leadership activities as youth learn to care and share with others. Youth enhance their physical, mental, and social health-the fourth "H"-as they learn to interact with other youth and adults, have meaningful expression, set and achieve goals, and make wise use of their leisure time.
A wide variety of educational or teaching tools is used in working with 4-H youth. These include projects, demonstrations, judging contests, community service, activities and events, recreation, and personal interaction. Many activities are organized on a competitive basis on the county, state, and sometimes national level. International experiences are available through exchange trips.
4-H programs and activities play a vital role in helping maintain interest in the 4-H project and the program in general. These activities may be educational or competitive in nature or a combination of the two. Examples of educational activities are camps, citizenship short courses, educational tours, and leadership training. Some examples of competitive events are talks and demonstrations in areas such as public speaking, safety, foods and nutrition, photography, or agronomy. Other competitive activities include judging contests, dress revues, and talent contests. Most competitive events have three or more levels of competition-county, district, and state-and sometimes regional or national competitions .
An important characteristic of the 4-H program is the learn-by-doing approach. 4-H's strong base of project work is built on active learning experiences. When youth practice this learn-by-doing method, 4-H members gain knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for their own personal growth and development. 4-H also prepares members for career and job opportunities, involves youth in decision making, provides opportunities for leadership development and service to the community, and assists in improving interpersonal relationships and general well-being (Table III).
4-H members are enrolled in one of several organizational groups-the community club, the school club, the project club, the project group, the special interest group, or the teen leader club. The organization of each group differs according to elected officers, adult volunteer leaders, and how individual members are enrolled in selected projects. Other young people may enroll in extension 4-H short courses, special interest meetings, workshops, TV action series, or individual study. Programs are as varied as one can imagine. The legal age for 4-H membership is 5-19. Youth under the age of 9 are in "preppie" or "cloverbud" clubs and are not allowed to participate in competitive events.
The educational base for 4-H work is through the project, an in-depth structured study of a subject. The project book provides the member with a self-directed sequence of activities based on new skills and knowledge. These projects cover a wide range of subjects that are categorized into eight major areas: animal and plant science, science and technology, environmental education and earth science, citizenship and civic education, personal development and leadership, healthy life-style education, consumer and family science, and communication and expressive arts. Projects books are generally available at no cost to 4-H members. One or more projects are required of all 4-H members each year since they are encouraged to "learn by doing. "
TABLE III
4-H Statistics-1992
| US Membership: | Boys - 2.65 million | 47% |
| Girls - 2.99 million | 53% | |
| Racial/Ethnic Composition: | Caucasian | 75% |
| Minority | 25% | |
| Place of Residence: | Farm | 12% |
| Towns under 10,000 | 35% | |
| Towns, 10,000-50,000 | 20% | |
| Suburbs of Cities over 50,000 | 12% | |
| Cities over 50,000 | 21% | |
| Age: | 5-8 | 24% |
| 9-11 | 40% | |
| 12-14 | 21% | |
| 15-19 | 10% | |
| Units: | Organized Clubs - 1.6 million | 27% |
| Special Interest - 1.1 million | 19% | |
| 4-H School Enrichment - 3.2 million | 54% | |
| FTE: | 4300 Professional Staff Equivalents |
Project literature is written for different age levels. Most project curriculum material is developed by the state extension specialist, although a literature and materials exchange is made within regions of the United States. Additional project literature can be obtained through the National 4-H Council, as can other types of 4-H resources such as flags, shirts, and trophies.
All 4-H members are encouraged to set goals to achieve within their project work each year and to submit a summary of this work in the form of a 4-H record book for judging. Books are examined on the basis of work accomplished in the main and supplemental projects, and in leadership and citizenship activities. Winners are selected on the county, state, and national levels. (In 1994, record books will no longer be judged at the national level. A new awards program format is being designed by the National 4-H Council to determine how national project book winners will be determined.) State winners are recognized at the National 4-H Congress. College scholarships or savings bonds are awarded to 4-H members who are selected as national record book winners. Many individuals and corporations support the national awards program by providing scholarships, trophies, medals, and other forms of recognition to the 4-H member. The National 4-H Council is responsible for the award and donor support program at the national level. Each state has a corresponding 4-H foundation that is responsible for the financial support of the total state program. Many counties have 4-H foundations as well.
The 4-H program depends on volunteer leaders. (A few states utilize a school-based club program where agents serve as the leaders of the groups.) County extension personnel are constantly recruiting and training the corps of adults and teens who assist with the county club program. Volunteers serve as main leaders, or leaders in the areas of projects, record books, activities, recreation, or leadership.
Most counties have active leader's councils that are the decision-making bodies of the county program. A state-wide leaders association performs the same planning function for the state program.
In addition to individual training by county extension agents, volunteers can attend county and state leaders' workshops to help prepare them for leadership roles. Volunteers have the opportunity to attend a regional leader forum each year and, occasionally, training at the national level. Additional training is provided by various national programs such as the Citizenship-Washington Focus trip or the National 4-H Congress.
Teens are encouraged to strengthen leadership skills by being active members of a local teen leader group. State teen leader conferences are held to provide experience in leadership, decision-making, and group process skills.
State 4-H Alumni Associations are found in many states, as are Collegiate 4-H chapters on college campuses.
B. Educational Work with Women
The overall purpose of the home economics program is to help families improve their social and economic well-being. The role of the home economist is to provide a variety of learning experiences in family living education for families to accomplish this mission. A wide array of audiences targeted for these programs includes young couples, parents, low income families, senior citizens and working mothers. One of the most successful group methods of home economics educational work has been in organized women's clubs. This method of community education is deeply rooted in the history of extension and is one of the most successful methods of teaching women in America.
Officially called Family Community Education (FCE) clubs today, these groups were first called home demonstration clubs after the home demonstration agents who provided the training to the local clubs. The name of home demonstration clubs was changed to Extension Homemaker Clubs in 1966 and Family Community Education clubs in 1992.
Today there are 341,651 members in 48 states and 2 territories in 23,000 clubs. Club membership is open to anyone. Meetings are held in public buildings, restaurants, community centers, and club houses. The mission of the FCE organization is to strengthen individuals and families through continuing education, leadership development, and community service.
The structure of this program extends from the local club level through a state FCE Association, the National FCE Association (NAFCE), and international affiliates of the County Women's Council (CWC) and the Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW).
Local clubs are organized at the community level and have elected officers and educational leaders whose responsibility is to participate in family living training programs and to teach this information to local club members. Clubs have an educational lesson at each monthly meeting, along with business and recreation. The local club president is the representative of the club on the county FCE association. (A few associations are organized by regional or geographic representatives whereas others allow every member to be a county association member.)
The president of each county association belongs to the state association. This group meets annually, usually at the state FCE meeting. The president of each state association belongs to the National FCE Association.
Each association has elected officers and educational committee chairpersons. There is a natural progression of district, state, and national positions. Although the educational programs for the local clubs are planned at the county level, direction is provided by the state and national associations for educational initiatives of the organization. These initiative or educational issue areas correspond with the national initiatives of the extension system. National and state chairpersons provide leadership to plan educational programs related to these initiatives, which are then implemented at the county level. State subject matter specialists advise these educational issue chairpersons on relevant issues and resources available, and assist in the implementation of statewide activities to help the association achieve the educational goals.
The county FCE council officers work with the county home economist in planning the home economics programs that will be carried out through the FCE club method. This task includes outlining major goals and objectives in each of the major initiative areas, establishing training meetings to be held, and determining community service activities and other public relations functions in the county.
Problems of the local community became an important component of the early clubs, focusing on local concerns such as community libraries, parks and playgrounds, or hot lunches for school children. Today community programs still aim to improve the quality of life for families through programs such as prevention of family violence or teenage pregnancy, improved health, literacy, or community recycling campaigns.
County home economists spend a majority of their time in servicing this club structure by working with individuals in developing leadership skills, providing training in subject matter areas, and planning and implementing FCE activities and other organizational functions required to maintain the club program. Some of these functions include the preparation of newsletters to the members, advising the executive committee, planning association meetings, assisting in member participation in district and state association functions, and implementing community educational activities such as health clinics, fairs, arts and crafts shows, food workshops, or special community projects.
In more recent years, the home economist has tried to focus on the larger picture of community needs with FCE members serving as a volunteer base to help address these local issues. Programs in women's financial management, health and well-being, nutrition, parenting, or day care provider training are examples of educational needs of the community that are conducted with FCE members serving as providers of services or education. Training of volunteers and paraprofessionals hired for special needs programs is also an important aspect of the job.
C. Community Development Programs
The Cooperative Extension Service Rural Community Development program emphasizes assisting local people in enhancing the physical, social, and economic condition of their community. The principal program goal is to strengthen rural communities by increasing group effectiveness in making and implementing decisions concerning improvements in the quality and level of living of people. Although steps in the community decision-making process are closely related to those involved in individual decision-making, there is a fundamental difference: community problems or issues are public in nature. Therefore, decisions to solve these problems usually require group, public, or a public official's action.
To achieve Economic and Community Development program goals, CES professionals targets citizen groups, business and industry leaders, elected and nonelected officials, city and county governing bodies, voluntary service and civic organizations, local and multicounty planning groups, and state and federal agencies. This means working with these groups in problem identification, goal establishment, determining realistic alternatives, and marshalling economic and human resources for the purpose of improving the quality of life within the community.
Many social and economic problems of communities are now being addressed through leadership development programs in extension. Community leaders are being trained to examine the current issues in education, economic development, criminal justice, and the welfare system. The participants in these programs explore the legislative process; are taught basic skills in communication, interpersonal relations, and economics; and learn skills in overcoming community barriers.
Organizational leadership is a part of the total community rural development program, which also includes educational work in economic development, rural development, community facilities and services, tourism, and public policy.
D. Volunteers
Extension may have the largest base of unpaid local leaders of any organization in the world. This base of volunteers represents one of the unique and important contributions that extension has made in adult education. Recent reports indicate that there were 546,000 volunteers assisting the 4-H program, spending an average of 220 hr of service to the program each year. This volunteer time was valued at $1.1 billion in 1992, but does not include the out-of-pocket expenses of the volunteer. There are an additional 341,000 members of FCE clubs across the nation who are volunteers to the local programs. Farm demonstrators and other community leaders volunteer their time and resources each year in agriculture and community development programs.
Volunteers serve in one or more general roles: (1) leaders in organizations such as 4-H or FCE, livestock associations, or commodity groups; (2) subject matter leaders who teach others such as the 4-H project leader, foods or clothing leader in the FCE club, or Master Volunteers; (3) activity leaders who assist with special activities in the county such as the fair, competitive events, community service programs, tours, or field days; and (4) committee leaders who serve on planning committees, councils, and boards to assist in the development of the total extension program. One of the most important responsibilities of the Extension agent is to recruit, train, and motivate these volunteers.
VIII. Linkages with Others
The extension system has developed a complex maze of relationships with other organizations and agencies over its history. Because of its unique federal, state, and county organizational structure, these linkages can be found at all levels, both horizontally and vertically. This provides both challenges and opportunities since public and private interests influence extension programs.
At the federal level, there are various agencies such as the Soil Conservation Agency, the Environmental Protection Agency, or the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare with which program partnerships are formed. The National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges is an important partner for extension, along with the influence of the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) for policy development and planning. Affiliates such as the National 4-H Council and the National Family Community Education Association lend support to the total extension program.
The administrative units of the land-grant colleges and pressures from farm organizations and allied groups influence the political process within each state. Agency partnerships are common at the state level as well as at the federal level. At the county level, volunteer boards, councils, farm organizations, commodity groups, high school agricultural and home economics programs, and governmental officials are among the important partners in extension's educational endeavors.
Cooperation and collaboration are needed to address the issues of society. Support from groups other than the traditional clientele groups will be needed to extend educational programs to new clientele in the future. As the organization shifts to new national and state priorities, new linkages will surely develop.
IX. The Future
The Cooperative Extension Service has been a catalyst for change for individuals and groups for 80 years. It can be credited with unique achievements in the history of adult education. With its broad mission and scope, the CES will continue to focus on problems associated with agriculture and rural communities, and economic and social developments affecting families of the future. Needs, technology, initiatives, audiences, and linkages will change, but the organization will continue to "help people help themselves. "
Bibliography
Extension Service (1991). Salary Analysis of Cooperative Extension Service Positions. USDA, Washington, D.C.
Extension Service (1992). National ES-237 Report. USDA, Washington, D.C.
Joint Council on Food and Agricultural Sciences (1986). FY 1986 Priorities for Research, Extension, and Higher Education: A Report to the Secretary of Agriculture. USDA, Washington, D.C.
Prawl, W., Medlin, R., and Gross, J. (1984). "Adult and Continuing Education through the Cooperative Extension Service." University of Missouri Extension Division, Columbia.
Rasmussen, W. D. (1989). "Taking the University to the People: Seventy-Five Years of Cooperative Extension. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
Sanders, H. C., Arbour, M. B., Bourg, T., Clark, R. C., Frutchey, F. P., and Jones, J. J., Jr. (1966). "The Cooperative Extension Service." Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Smith-Lever Act, as amended (1962). Public Law 83, S167, Chapter 157. 83rd Congress, First Session.
Vines, C. A., and Anderson, M. A. (1976). "Heritage Horizons: Extension's Commitment to People." Journal of Extension, Madison, Wisconsin.
Warner, P. D., and Christenson, J. A. (1984). "The Cooperative Extension Service: A National Assessment." Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
"Working With Our Publics" (1988). "The Idea and Purpose of the Land-Grant Institution." North Carolina State University, Raleigh.