The first curriculum in the early ages of education, the Greek era, was called the TRIVIUM and contained three areas of study-grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic (Cole, 1950). This educational focus continued until the middle ages. As the world emerged from the dark ages. the need for a broader. more scientific education emerged. Four additional areas of study known as the QUADRIVIUM were added to education. These were arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (Eby and Arrowood, 1940). The addition of the QUADRIVIUM added the sciences to the TRIVIUM and broadened the scope of education. The seven subjects contained in the TRIVIUM and QUADRIVIUM came to be known as the SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS (Abelson, 1906) and served as the curriculum for education from the medieval age until the twentieth century.

At the start of the twentieth century there was widespread dissatisfaction with public school education in America which had been dominated by subjects from the Seven Liberal Arts. The public wanted a more practical, useful education that would meet the needs of a growing industrial and agricultural nation (Cremin, 1961; Krug, 1964). Just as centuries earlier, the addition of the quadrivium added the sciences to the largely cultural trivium and broadened the scope of education, there was a need in the early 1900s to go even further in broadening the scope of education. There was a need for a new quadrivium in education.

The development of a new type of education in the United States, a more practical, useful education focusing on preparing men and women for work in the industrial age, can be traced primarily to the efforts of four people. They came together in Massachusetts during the early part of this century. Their efforts resulted in the development of a model for American vocational education. These four could be called the "HUMAN QUADRIVIUM" or "QUADRUMVIRATE" (an association of four people). These four people were David Snedden, Charles Prosser, Charles Allen, and Rufus Stimson.

Bennett (1937, p. 517) indicated the association of these men ". . . resulted in the rapid development of a comprehensive scheme of vocational education in connection with the public schools of Massachusetts which served as a model for study and inspired action by other states." Venn (1964, p. 55) concurred with Bennett by writing, "Under their strong leadership the program grew rapidly and became a model for other states. By 1910 more than a score of states followed the Bay State example and set up state-level programs of vocational education."

Greenwood (1978, p. 159) wrote, "The Massachusetts system, the first in the nation, became a pilot-test or experiment for the rest of the nation. It is no coincidence that the five persons (she included Paul Hanus, a professor of education at Harvard) who fashioned and implemented such a system had a noticeable influence in formulating a national program of vocational education." McCarthy (1951, p. 95) identified the Massachusetts men as pioneers in the field and recognized that "They helped develop the philosophies of the field and later they did intensified missionary work in acquainting others with their philosophies."

While there has been some change in vocational education during the past two-and-a half decades, much of what the quadrumvirate established still exists today. What prompted these four educators to chart a new direction for American education? Each came from a different background, possessed unique experiences, and held specific beliefs about education. One was a sociologist, another was lawyer, the third was a scientist by training, and the fourth was educated as a philosopher. They blended their beliefs and created an enduring foundation for vocational education.

Vocational education professionals have much to gain from a study of these four gentlemen. We can learn how the philosophical foundations for vocational education were developed. We can better understand the rationale supporting the pedagogical practices employed in vocational education, and we can gain insight into the process of consolidating and blending ideas into an educational program that meets the needs of society. By studying the past we may be able to better face the challenges of the future.

The remainder of this article will focus on each of the four men who made up the quadrumvirate. Their background, education, philosophy, and contributions to vocational education will be examined.

On May 24, 1905, William I. Douglas, governor of Massachusetts, approved a resolution of the Massachusetts Senate and House of Representatives creating a Commission on Industrial and Technical Education (Struck, 1930). On June 7, the governor appointed the Commission with the charge to investigate the educational needs of the various industries in the state. After a series of 24 meetings the Commission recommended the creation of a system of vocational schools and a Commission on Industrial Education to administer vocational education in the state. This commission was to be separate from the State Board of Education. The Commission was created by legislative action in 1906 and went about the task of implementing a program of vocational education under the leadership of Paul Hanus (1937).

According to Drost (1967) the school leaders of the state never really accepted the Commission on Industrial Education. A number of people urged the consolidation of the Commission on Industrial Education with the State Board of Education. Effective July 1, 1909, a new Board of Education was created by an act of the Massachusetts General Court. This new board had four members from the old Board of Education, one from the Commission on Industrial Education, and four new people. An appointed commissioner was to be the chief executive officer. The commissioner was to have two deputies, one specifically to supervise the system of vocational education and the other to look after the interests of the common school.

On November 15, 1909, David Snedden, a professor at Teachers College (Columbia) took office as the new Commissioner of Education (Seventy-third annual report of the Board of Education, 1910). Early in 1910, after careful deliberation Snedden hired the two deputy commissioners. William Orr, the principal of the Springfield Classical High School was hired as deputy commissioner for general education and Charles Prosser, a former graduate student of Snedden's, was hired to serve as the deputy commissioner for vocational education (Drost, 1967). Within a year, Prosser hired two assistants, Charles Allen as supervisor of industrial education and Rufus Stimson as supervisor of agricultural education (Seventy-fifth annual report of the Board of Education, 1912). These four men set about implementing a program of vocational education in Massachusetts that has served as a model for the rest of the nation.

David Snedden-The Sociologist

David Samuel Snedden was born November 19,1868, on a small ranch at the foot of the Sierra Nevada Mountains near Kavilah, California. His childhood was structured around the hard outdoor life of a ranch hand. His initial education began at home because the nearest school was 40 miles away. His mother, Ann O'Keefe Snedden, taught him well. When David Snedden first attended school at the age of 14 he was placed in the eighth grade (Drost, 1967).

In 1887 David's dreams of a college education were realized as he entered St. Vincent's College (now Loyola-Marymount) due to the generosity of an aunt. He was able to complete the normal four years of secondary education and two years of college by 1889 and was awarded the A.B. degree. During this time Agnes Wilson, his cousin, introduced David to the writings of Darwin, Huxley, and Spencer. She also conveyed to him her interest in education and teaching.

Hoping to finance later study in the area of law, Snedden took a teaching job in the fall of 1889 in the Fairview District of Ventura County. After teaching in ungraded schools for two years he became a teacher-principal at the Santa Paula Elementary School. In 1892 he became principal of Union High School and also received his Master of Arts degree from St. Vincent's College.

In 1895, Snedden enrolled in Stanford University where his past education allowed him immediate junior status. Majoring in education gave him the opportunity to have Earl Barnes, a leader in the child study movement, as an advisor; and the flexible structuring of courses precipitated his contact with Edward Ross, a noted sociologist. Snedden completed his A.B. degree from Stanford in 1897 and accepted the job as principal of the high school and superintendent of schools in Paso Robles (Bawden, 1953).

The year of 1900 found the Sneddens (he married Genevra Sisson in 1898) at the Teachers College of Columbia University with David working on another master's degree. He took course work under Thorndike, James Russell, and the sociologist, Samuel Dutton. Dutton inspired Snedden to examine sociology as an instrument for societal change as Ross had earlier done at Stanford. Snedden chose Samuel Dutton as his major professor, captivated by Dutton's "social service objective" for education.

Returning to California in the summer of 1901, after obtaining a master's degree from Teachers college, Snedden joined the Education faculty at Stanford (Drost, 1967). In 1905 the new head of the Education Department, Elwood Cubberly, informed Snedden that a doctorate would be necessary to remain on the faculty.

David returned to Columbia and pursued the doctorate. During his doctoral program he studied again under Thorndike, Giddings, Dutton, and Russell. He also took classes under John Dewey and settled on Edward Devine as his major professor. Devine was at the time one of the country's most renowned social workers and inspired young Snedden to select a study on juvenile reform schools as his dissertation topic. After being awarded the doctorate in 1907, Snedden stayed at Teachers College as a member of the faculty.

Many aspects of David's education developed his direction and philosophy for his later educational endeavors. The large number of primary school drop-outs in the schools in which he taught seemed to spark an analytical interest in proper curriculum development. He was living in an era punctuated by open outcries for educational reform and all the while he was driven and haunted by Spencer's query, "what knowledge is [of] most worth" (Drost, 1967, p. 19). From Ross he had learned of "social control" and from Dutton the idea of "social service objectives" (Drost, 1967) for education. His education, experience, and seemingly natural gregarious nature propelled him on to his next challenge-Massachusetts.

Charles Prosser-The Lawyer

Charles Allen Prosser was born September 20, 1871, in New Albany, Indiana. He attended the elementary and high schools of New Albany and took courses in a business school. His teaching experience began in 1895 and included teaching in an elementary school, teaching science and English literature in the high school, and serving as an elementary school principal, all in New Albany (Bawden, 1985; Grenwood, 1978). Prosser received the B.S. degree from DePauw University in 1897.

During Prosser's New Albany teaching career he completed one year of law study through correspondence work and then enrolled in the Law School of the University of Louisville in 1898. Here, while teaching the larger portion of the day in the high school in New Albany just across the river, he carried the work of both years simultaneously, and won the honors of both classes and all the prizes for which he was a contestant, a record never before approached in the history of the school. He was admitted to the bar in 1898.

Prosser served as superintendent of the New Albany schools between 1900 and 1908. During this period of time he accomplished a variety of feats. He was elected president of the Indiana Teachers Association, served on the legislative committee of the association, and developed the principles for the Indiana System of Teachers' Retirements allowances (Gadell, 1972). While president he strongly espoused the need for a more practical education and to rid the secondary schools of college domination (Prosser, 1903).

During Prosser's superintendency he collaborated with George Lockwood to write a book on the New Harmony Movement (Lockwood and Prosser, 1905). Prosser was responsible for a rather voluminous chapter dealing with the educational aspects of the New Harmony experience. Prosser thoroughly reviewed the philosophy of the movement (tracing it back to Pestalozzi) and identified the desirable innovations the experiment was responsible for in current educational circles. It is apparent in Prosser's chapter that he agreed with many of the educational concepts of the New Harmony movement, including the practicality of the New Harmony education.

In addition to being superintendent of schools in New Albany, Prosser was also a juvenile judge. His experiences as a juvenile judge led him to write his master's thesis on juvenile courts. The A.M. degree was awarded to Prosser by DePauw University in 1906. As a result of his thesis, juvenile courts were established in every county in Indiana (Buerk, 1933).

Prosser left Indiana in the fall of 1908 to pursue a doctorate in educational administration at Columbia University. At Columbia, Prosser's course work included History of Education from Monroe, School Administration from Dutton, European Social Legislation from Lindsay, Educational Psychology from Thorndike, Principles of Education from Henderson, Problems in Elementary Education from Heliengas, Schools of France from Cohn, and Administration of Social Education from David Snedden (Gadell, 1972).

During Prosser's second year of graduate study he was employed part time as superintendent and legal advisor of the Children's Aid Society in New York City (Bawden, 1952). Prosser completed his course work for the doctorate by 1910 and had seven job offers including two separate professorships at Columbia (Drost, 1967). However, Prosser accepted a position offered by a close friend and former mentor, David Snedden, to come to Massachusetts and serve as Deputy Superintendent for Industrial Education.

Prosser's philosophy going into Massachusetts had been formed from several sources; his experiences as a juvenile judge in Indiana; as superintendent of the New York Children's Aid Society; intensive study of the New Harmony Movement; as a law student, school teacher, and superintendent in Southern Indiana; and as a student under the likes of Dutton and Snedden. All of these influences combined to prepare Prosser for the tasks ahead.

Charles Allen-The Scientist

Charles Ricketson Allen was born August 6, 1862, in New Bedford, Massachusetts. His father, John A. and mother Abbic (Chaddock) Allen, saw to Charles's education initially at Friends Academy and later at the New Bedford High School. Charles's inquiring and scientifically directed mind led him to acquire a B.S. in chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1885. Mr. Allen then worked as an assistant in a general chemistry laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. During this same period (1885) he also worked at Harvard as a private assistant to Professor Wolcott Gibbs.

In 1886 he returned to New Bedford to teach science at the high school. His first published work which reflected his technical nature, Laboratory Manual of Physics, was published in 1890. While teaching high school, Allen completed some graduate work at Johns Hopkins University in 1893. In 1903 Allen received a master of arts degree in education from Harvard University.

In 1906, Allen's teaching career took a different direction. He was asked to develop a program of industrial education for New Bedford. He served as principal of the New Bedford Evening Electrical School from 1906 to 1907 and was then appointed Director of evening industrial courses. He continued teaching science in the high school during this period. In 1909, Allen became director of the New Bedford Independent Industrial School. Mr. Allen was able to implement within this new vocational system his principles of teaching and learning. He presented problems to be solved to the students. The students were eager to understand and solve the problems. He had found this type of motivation lacking in the formal schools of his day and hoped to set this new philosophy as a cornerstone of his vocational program. In 1911 Allen was asked to join Prosser in implementing a state-wide system of vocational education.

Allen brought some different experiences to the quadrumvirate. He was a native of Massachusetts and knew the state. He had been involved in the ground floor efforts to establish vocational education in Massachusetts. He was experienced in the nitty-gritty of establishing and running a program of vocational education. Bawden (1952, p. 220) reported that Allen had "a grasp of the administrative and technical details (of industrial education) that few men had opportunity to acquire at the early period." His analytical, scientific background coupled with graduate work in education at Harvard was excellent preparation for the contributions he would make to vocational education.

Rufus Stimson-The Philosopher

The least known of the quadrumvirate was Rufus Whittaker Stimson. He was born February 20, 1868 on a farm near Palmer, Massachusetts (Kornegay, 1978). He was educated in the public schools of Palmer. Stimson attended Colby College in Maine for two years and then went to Harvard University where he studied philosophy under William James. The works of Socrates, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart occupied a prominent place on his desk (Stimson, 1942). While at Harvard he took a course in the theory and art of teaching given by Paul H. Hanus. Stimson received the A.B. degree in philosophy in 1895 and the A.M. degree in 1896. He next attended the Yale Divinity School and received the B.D. in 1897.

From 1897 to 1901 Stimson was a professor of English, ethics, and public speaking at the Connecticut Agricultural College (now the University of Connecticut). In 1901, Stimson was appointed acting president and was made president shortly thereafter. When he assumed the presidency he was described as ". . . young, full of energy, and ambitious for the growth of the institution. He was by nature a publist" (Stemmons, 1931, p. 111).

Stimson believed in publicizing the institution and in working closely with community and state leaders. Prior to Stimson's assuming the presidency, a major rift had disrupted the institution, destroyed the faith of the people of Connecticut in the institution, and had caused the ouster of the previous president. Stimson was able to restore faith in the university, increase enrollment by 700 percent, and bring a number of major improvements to the college (Stemmons, 1931). He was recognized, among other things, as an eloquent speaker.

As president of the college, he attended meetings of the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations (AAACES). In addition to discussing college admission policies, courses of study, and other administrative matters, the group was concerned with agricultural and vocational instruction of secondary grades. Stimson twice served as chairman of the College Work and Administration section of the AAACES. This group was influential in getting the National Education Association (NEA) to add a department of rural education to their organizational structure.

On February 20, 1908, Stimson's 40th birthday, he submitted his resignation. He had decided to accept a new position as Director of the Smith Agricultural School in Northampton, Massachusetts.

In the fall of 1908 Stimson assumed the directorship of the new secondary school and prepared a brochure about the new school. In the brochure he outlined a new plan for the teaching of agriculture. STUDENTS WILL LEARN AGRICULTURE AT THE SCHOOL BUT APPLY WHAT THEY HAVE LEARNED TO THEIR HOME FARMS THROUGH THE USE OF HOME PROJECTS. Based upon his experiences at the Connecticut Agricultural College, the pragmatic teachings of William James, and his study of other philosophers, Stimson believed that education should be practical and relevant.

During the 1908-1910 era, Stimson worked diligently at developing the new school and installing the project concept. The project method of teaching soon proved to be successful (Thayer, 1928). The new education leaders in Massachusetts, Snedden and Prosser, were interested in what Stimson was doing. They were impressed with the home project method used by Stimson (Snedden, 1917, Stimson, 1942).

Stimson was invited to become state supervisor of agricultural education for Massachusetts in 1911 (Bawden, 1952). He brought another dimension to the quadrumvirate. He was a great publicist and orator, had been a university president, was thoroughly grounded in philosophy, and had been successful in implementing a new type of education.

Snedden, Prosser, Allen, and Stimson went about establishing a strong system of vocational education in Massachusetts. Both Allen and Stimson had been involved in the operation of vocational education and were knowledgeable about the details, while Snedden and Prosser were vocal about the need for and desirability of a new type of education but really did not know much about the operation and organization of vocational education. Drost (1967, p. 105) reported that "Prosser, with his legal degree, some business college background, and experiences in social work and school administration, was really quite inexperienced in vocational education, the specialty for which he had been hired." McKinny (1956, p. 16) recalled that during Prosser's early days in Massachusetts Prosser was asked what he knew about vocational education. Prosser ". . . replied that he 'didn't know a thing."' Allen and Stimson appeared to have educated Snedden and Prosser about the inner workings of vocational education and to have been the implementors of vocational education while Snedden and Prosser were the front men and broad policy makers.

The preceding is enforced by Bawden (1952, p. 220) who reported that:

. . . on one occasion Dr. Prosser responded to an urgent call to meet with the members of the school committee, and representatives of employers and workers, in a city that was contemplating the introduction of a program of trade training. Two days were spent in looking over the situation and in a series of conferences, at which Prosser outlined the provisions of the law, discussed the conditions to be met by the community, and explained the objectives and advantages of industrial education. Toward the end of the second day, the members of the school committee began asking questions concerning details of just what to do and how to do it. That evening Prosser announced that he had received a long-distance call that would require his return to Boston, but he would send his assistant who was fully qualified to take up with the superintendent and the committee all the necessary details. Two days later, Mr. Allen appeared on the scene to help get the program started. It is said something like this happened on several occasions.

The system of vocational education implemented in Massachusetts served as the model for the future development of vocational education in America. Each of the four members of the Massachusetts quadrumvirate made easily identifiable contributions to the development of vocational education.

David Snedden

A close analysis of David Snedden's contributions to vocational education would require the reader to keep in mind the context in which he worked. Vocational education was in its infancy and general education seemed destined to absorb this new idea, possibly stifle its existence. Snedden was a forceful, vocal proponent for vocational education. He wrote and spoke extensively on the need for and importance of vocational education. He authored at least 97 journal articles dealing with vocational education and authored eight books concerned with vocational education. His first major vocational education book was published under the title, The Problem of Vocational Education (Snedden, 1910).

After an intense examination of the life and work of Snedden, Greenwood (1978, p. 321) concluded:

Typically, vocational educators have underestimated the contributions of David Snedden in the development of vocational education. From about 1910 to 1925, it was Snedden who persistently conceptualized, elaborated, and envisioned a system for making vocational education available with public funds. His efforts characterized vocational education as a field of study rather than a mere temporal reform movement. The literature of this early period seems to establish Snedden as the initial educator in America to envision vocational training (with the primary purpose of preparing individuals for employment) as having a rightful and permanent place with public funds to educate the masses of people. He perceived vocational training as having equal status to cultural and other kinds of curricular emphases already established in the public schools.

Charles Prosser

Most vocational educators would probably identify Prosser's advocacy of vocational education as his greatest contribution to the development of vocational education. It is true that he was a nationally recognized proponent of vocational education and should be recognized for this. During 1912 Prosser traveled over 50,000 miles promoting industrial education in over 50 cities in 15 different states. He made more than 100 speeches to national, state and local organizations (Struci, 1930). Cremin (19861, p. 54) stated that he ". . .was literally indefatigable in its cause, traveling from city to city and from state to state, formulating programs, exciting individuals, and corralling legislators. "

Even though Prosser was an ardent publicist for vocational education, his greatest contributions to vocational education were on the legislative front. Bawden (1952, p. 219) wrote, "This experience (referring to Prosser's law training) proved to be of utmost significance to ... the progress of vocational education, for he subsequently asserted more influence upon the development and character of legislation for vocational education than any leader in our history." Prosser's training as a lawyer was useful as he helped various states (14 by 1914) write legislation concerning vocational education (Greenwood, 1976). Prosser went to Washington in 1912 to help get national legislation passed for vocational education. He, along with Snedden, helped Senator Page revise the Page Bill which was an early vocational education bill (True, 1920). When it became apparent the Page Bill was not going to pass, Prosser was a major force in obtaining a compromise that resulted in the establishment of a Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education in 1914 (Barlow, 1976). Prosser served on the Commission and was given much of the credit for the work of the commission (Gadell, 1972). The final chapter of the Commission's report contained proposed legislation. This section was personally written by Prosser, and with a few minor changes, it became the Smith-Hughes Act. Many of the ideas concerning vocational education during Prosser's tenure in Massachusetts are found in the Smith-Hughes Act, such as the project method of teaching agriculture (Deyoe, 1943). Charles Prosser was the driving force in establishing national legislation for vocational education.

After the Smith-Hughes Act was passed, Prosser served as the first executive secretary of the Federal Board for Vocational Education for two years. In this capacity he was largely responsible for determining the policies and procedures to be used in a national system of vocational education. The guidelines established by Prosser remained virtually intact until 1963.

Charles Allen

Charles Allen brought job analysis to the field of vocational education (Sears, 1931; Thompson, 1973). In job analysis, the job of the worker is carefully studied and broken down into tasks. Plans can then be made as to how to teach students these tasks. The job analysis technique was used in agriculture in 1911 (Stimson, 1922). It appears the idea came from Allen. It was not long before job analysis was being used in home economics education (Brown and Haley, 1928). The job analysis method for determining curriculum is still being used in vocational education today under the label of competency based- education.

In conjunction with job analysis, Allen espoused a systematic method of teaching. This method became known as the Allen Four-Step Method and dominated teaching in vocational education for many decades. When Allen became a supervisor in Massachusetts, teacher education was not well developed. Part of Allen's responsibilities as supervisor included helping teachers to teach more effectively. Hawkins, Prosser, and Wright (1951, p. 263) stated "... his contributions to vocational teacher training were among the most notable of his early achievements." Cushman (1928, p. 389) stated "Allen was the outstanding pioneer in the application of the scientific method of attack on teacher-training problems." His philosophy concerning teaching was based on experience, his scientific background, and his study of the educational leaders.

In his writings, Allen was able to transpose the philosophies and theories of Dewey, Herbart, Pestalozzi, Rousseau, Mann, Hanus, Bagley, and even David Snedden into a practical teaching methodology (Hawkins, Prosser, and Wright, 1951). He scientifically analyzed a job into its basic components and then applied the Four-Step Method in teaching students to perform the job. (The Four-Step Method was closely related to the teaching procedure advocated by Herbert and his followers.) The four steps in teaching-preparation, presentation, application, and inspection (Allen, 1918) seem very rigid, yet, Allen reiterated that these steps formed the basis of principles underlying instruction and that a host of different teaching methods could and should be used in actual practice. Allen's approach to teaching was of extreme value to the fledgling vocational education because it produced positive results.

Trained initially as a scientist, Allen's inductive reasoning allowed him to bring about systematic methods to a new educational force and therefore, add to its credibility. During the testimonial dinner in honor of Allen in 1928, nearly every speaker discussed Allen's scientific analysis and approach to the problems of vocational education.

Rufus Stimson

Stimson's most famous contribution to vocational education was the practical application of knowledge through the project method of teaching (Thayer, 1928). Even though this technique originated in agriculture it was soon adapted to other areas of vocational education and was used extensively outside of vocational education. (William Heard Kilpatrick, a noted professor at Teachers College, espoused the project method and was erroneously identified by many scholars as the originator of the concept because of his teaching and publications about the project method.) It is somewhat ironic that many of the educators who were against vocational education readily embraced the project method.

In the project method of teaching the skills and knowledge learned in vocational education are applied in real life settings. Stimson and the other early leaders wanted vocational education to be realistic and practical, and the project method helped to make this possible (Stimson, 1919).

Stimson is recognized as the founder of the itinerant teacher-training approach for preparing teachers (Heald, 1929). Bawden (1913) wrote about Stimson's work in training teachers on the job. Stimson authored several bulletins in the pre Smith-Hughes days on teacher training, and so did Allen. Allen was recognized for his work in preparing teachers on the job as early as 1914 (Hawkins, Prosser, and Wright, 1951). It appears Stimson and Allen worked together in training teachers in the early days of Massachusetts.

Stimson was the first person in agriculture to advocate the use of advisory committees. However, he acknowledged that he got the idea from trade and industrial education (Hamlin, 1952), probably from Allen.

Perhaps one of Stimson's greater contributions to the development of vocational education was his moderating views on the organization of vocational education. He was not seen as the radical social control type which was a label carried by Prosser and Snedden. Stimson advocated a balanced education-one that included cultural as well as vocational education. Stimson (1937, p. 101) wrote, ". . . the vocational agriculture pupil will be given the best his high school has to offer in disciplines good for us simply because we are human beings. These should include the mother-tongue, acquaintance with the best things that have been thought and said and done in the world, anywhere, anytime and by anybody. . . ." Stimson did not advocate placing vocational education away from the rest of education. Having a person with Stimson's background and training arguing for a balanced education, one which included vocational education, did much to advance vocational education.

Prosser was the first to leave Masachusetts. He left in 1912 to become secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE). He directed the activities of this group until 1915. During his tenure as secretary of the NSPIE he found time to write his doctoral dissertation and was awarded the Ph.D. degree from Teachers College in June of 1915 (Bawden, 1952).

In 1915 Prosser accepted a position as Director of the William Hood Dunwoody Institute in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was a vocational school in which Prosser implemented what he considered to be real vocational education. He served as director (except for a two-year leave while he served as executive director of the Federal Board) until his retirement September 20, 1945 (Hawkins, Prosser, and Wright, 1951). Prosser died November 26, 1952, in Minneapolis.

Snedden was the next to leave Massachusetts. In July of 1916 he returned to Columbia University as a tenured professor. For the next ten years, Snedden was an advocate of vocational education. Snedden became president of the National Society for the Promotion of Vocational Education in 1918. When this group started publication of the Vocational Education Magazine in 1922, Snedden was selected as the editor (Prosser, Allen and Stimson served as editors or associate editors of discipline specific sections in the magazine).

Snedden became more immersed in educational sociology in the later stages of his career. He founded the National Society for the Study of Educational Sociology in 1923. As Snedden grew older his views toward education could be called radical, even taking on a socialist slant (Drost, 1967). After about 1925, many of the leaders in vocational education quietly put distance between themselves and Snedden.

In 1935, Snedden retired from Columbia and returned to California and his ranch. Here he continued his writing and guest lecturing for 16 more years. He died at his home in Palo Alto, California, on December 1, 1951.

Allen became acting deputy commissioner for vocational education in Massachusetts for a year after Prosser left. Then he returned to his duties as state supervisor of industrial education. Allen continued in this position until 1917. He was then loaned to the U. S. Shipping Board by the Massachusetts Board of Education to assist with the establishment of training courses for building ships for the war effort in 1917. Mr. Allen developed training programs that resulted in the training of 88,000 men (MacNary, 1928).

After the war effort ended, Mr. Allen became a member of the staff of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. His primary responsibility was to conduct sessions on foreman-training in each of the five national regions established by the Federal Board. In 1918, the book The Instructor, the Man, and the Job was published outlining his teaching views (Allen, 1918).

In 1920, Allen served as director of training of the Niagara Falls Chamber of Commerce. In 1921, he again worked for the Federal Board as a special agent. In 1922, he became the director of industrial training service in Minneapolis, Minnesota, at the Dunwoody Institute. From 1928 until his retirement, Mr. Allen served as editor and educational consultant for the Federal Board. Allen died July 6, 1938.

Unlike the other members of the quadrumvirate, Stimson did not leave Massachusetts. He remained state supervisor of agricultural education until he had to retire in 1938 at the age of 70 under a mandatory state retirement law.

At the age of 71, Stimson received an appointment as a Research Specialist in Agricultural Education in the U.S. Office of Education for the purpose of writing a history of agricultural education. The history was published in 1942. Stimson died on May 1, 1947, in Hyanis, Massachusetts.

The four members of the Massachusetts quadrumvirate each made unique contributions to the development of vocational education. Snedden had a burning vision of a new type of education that would improve society. Prosser had the legal background to get legislation passed establishing this new type of education. Allen contributed scientific techniques for arriving at the content of the curriculum and then teaching the content in an efficient manner. Stimson provided the pragmatic vehicle, the project method, for making the new education practical and useful. These early leads combined sociology, law, the scientific method, and philosophy to establish a new order of education.

Currently, many vocational educators believe the future of vocational education is cloudy because of the educational reform movement. The simple fact is that society and technology are changing but education has not. Both general education and vocational education need to improve and change. That is what the quadrumvirate advocated and implemented early in this century- an improved and changed education. They were the leaders of educational reform. Vocational educators need to remember that vocational education emerged from a coalescing of different ideas and thoughts. We can learn from the quadrumvirate. We, as vocational educators, must be involved in educational reform and must look to various disciplines for help in developing a new order of education-one that includes and integrates vocational education in the education for the future.

Abelson, P. (1906). The seven liberal arts: A study of medieval culture. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.

Allen, C. R. (1918). The instructor, the man, and thejob. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.

Barlow, M. L. (1976). The unconquerable Senator Page. Washington, DC: American Vocational Association.

Bawden, W. T. (1913, November). Types of Massachusetts agricultural schools. Vocational Education, 3, 86-105.

Bawden, W. T (1952-53). Leaders in Industrial Education. Industrial Arts and Vocational Education. (Between September of 1952 and December of 1953 several issues of this magazine contained a running article on Prosser and Snedden.)

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