SOCRATES
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCRATES. Socrates developed a philosophy which, through his own teachings and the teachings of his immediate followers, especially Plato and Aristotle, eventually won the attention and respect of thinking men everywhere. The three great Socratic philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, were to be "rediscovered" during the Renaissance and their rational, practical, and scientific ideas were to influence the thinking and the governmental, religious, and educational institutions of the entire western world.

LIFE OF SOCRATES, 469-399 B.C.

 1. THE YOUNG SOCRATES. Almost nothing is known of the childhood of Socrates but it can be assumed from his later display of learning that he attended the schools of Athens until he entered military service at age eighteen.

 a. Military Hero. Socrates served Athens in the warfare with Sparta, participating in the battles of Petidaea, Delium, and Amphipolis. In the course of the battle of Petidaea he saved the life of Alcibiades, the popular Athenian general.

 b. Stonecutter. Socrates worked from time to time as a stonecutter.

 c. Sculptor. He completed two works of sculpture, "Hermes," the god, and "The Three Graces."

 d. Marriage. Socrates married Xanthippe. She is said to have resented the fact that he charged no fees for his teaching. Later, in 415 B.C., Craco's Law authorized polygamy for the purpose of increasing the male population of the state. Socrates is believed to have taken a second wife at this time.

  2. PHILOSOPHER AND TEACHER. Socrates devoted most of his adult life to the development of a philosophy and to teaching those followers who attached themselves to his dialogue discussion groups. Socrates was distinctive for: a. Devotion to Ethics an attitude which influenced all later Greek philosophers.

b. Development of the Inductive Method of reasoning.

c. Linking Knowledge to Happiness. He believed that knowledge, or insight, was the foundation of virtue and happiness.

d. Rationalism. Socrates believed that man was capable of arriving at truth through the use of reason.
 

 3. TRIAL AND DEATH.  Socrates, at age seventy, was brought to trial on charges that he was an atheist and a corrupter of youth. He was found guilty and was sentenced to death. On the order of his judges, Socrates drank poison hemlock and died. The trial and the last days and death of Socrates are described by Plato in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo.

STUDENTS. Some of the famous men who studied with Socrates were:

 1. PLATO, considered one of the greatest philosophers in the history of civilized man.

2. ALCIBIADES, a military genius.

3. ARISTIPPUS, founder of the Cyrenaic school of hedonism.

4. ANTISTHENES, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy.

5. XENOPHON, a military leader and historian.

6. CRITO, one of the wealthiest men in Athens.
 

 SOCRATIC METHOD. Athens became the classroom of Socrates. He went about asking questions of authorities and of the man in the street in order to arrive at political and ethical truths. He questioned groups of his students as a means of instruction, to compel them to think a problem through to a logical conclusion. His dialectic method, or method of investigating problems through dialogue discussions, came to be known as the Socratic method. It involved:  1. SOCRATIC IRONY. Socrates pretended that he knew no answers. His assumed ignorance or willingness to learn from others was the background for adroit questioning to reveal the t truth or expose the error of the answers he received.

 2. DEFINITION. The initial question usually required the definition of the concept.

 3. ANALYSIS. Subsequent questions elicited an analysis of the definition in all its implications.

 4. GENERALIZATIONS. After examining all of the particular applications and consequences of the concept, Socrates reasoned, or persuaded his students to reason, from the particular to the general, or by the process of induction, to reach a general conclusion.
 

  THE PHILOSOPHY OF SOCRATES. Although Socrates wrote no books, his philosophy is known through the writing of historians and of his students, and especially through the writings of Plato. Major ideas in the Socratic philosophy were: 1. THE PROPER STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY IS MAN. Socrates was not concerned with metaphysical questions as such. He believed that philosophy should achieve practical results in the form of greater well-being for man the individual and for mankind as a society. Hence, the proper study of philosophy is man. In pursuit of this study, Socrates' interests were centered in ethics and politics.

2. NATURAL ETHIC. Socrates attempted to establish an ethical system based upon human reason rather than upon theological directives.

3. KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM. Socrates asserted that the highest good for any human being is happiness. Whatever action a man chooses is motivated by his desire for happiness. Knowledge, virtue, and wisdom are all the same, since man chooses an action according to what he thinks will bring him the greatest happiness. Therefore the more a man knows, the greater his ability to reason out the correct choice and to choose those actions which truly bring happiness to him.

4. SELF-KNOWLEDGE. The highest knowledge is possessed by that individual who truly knows himself. This knowledge constitutes ultimate wisdom. It enables man to act in a virtuous manner at all times, because he knows what will bring him true happiness.

5. POLITICS. Socrates did not approve of tyranny or of democracy. He believed that the best form of government was one ruled by an individual possessing the greatest ability, knowledge, and virtue.
 

 THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCRATIC THOUGHT. The contributions of Socrates to education were:

1. TEACHING METHOD. The Socratic method offers the following advantages to teaching act:

a. Problem Centered. The dialectic begins with a problem which must be analyzed, e.g. "What is your opinion about the nature of justice?"

b. Based Upon Student Experience. The student responds on the basis of his own knowledge and experience.

c. Critical Thinking. The student is held responsible for his statements. The teacher analyzes some of the possible consequences of the student's remarks. The emphasis is upon the thinking processes of the student, who must think for himself and accept the consequences of his logic.

d. Teaching Is a Drawing Forth Rather Than a Telling. In the Socratic method the teacher does not tell the student the proper answer. He draws from the student the probable answer.

e. Learning Is Discovery. The student learns when he discovers the true generalization through his reasoning processes.
 

 2. PURPOSE OF EDUCATION DEFINED. The aims of education as derived from Socratic thought are: a. Self-knowledge. The educated man is wise when he knows himself.

b. Individual Moral Good. The acquisition of knowledge is valuable for man because it makes him virtuous and happy. Socrates repudiated any ornamental theory of knowledge. In similar fashion Socrates would deplore the use of knowledge merely for material success in life. Knowledge is ethically and morally important for all men.

c. Skill in Thinking. Each man must develop his skill in critically appraising propositions through the reasoning process.
 

 Return to the Course Outline.