GARY E. MOORE, North
Carolina State University
Taken from the Encyclopedia of Agricultural
Science, Volume 2. Edited by Charles J. Arntzen, Academic Press, 1994.
I. Public School Education in Agriculture
II. Postsecondary Education in Agriculture
III. Cooperative Extension Service
IV. Other Agricultural Programs for Youth and Adults
Glossary
Agribusiness Education Term used to describe high school programs of agriculture during the mid 1960s through the 1970s; still in use today but not as popular
Agricultural Education Term used to globally define all programs of education in agriculture for youth and adults; also commonly used in describing high school programs of agriculture today
Agriscience Integration of scientific principles and theories into the curriculum and teaching of agriculture
Cooperative Extension Service Education agency that conducts educational programs in agriculture and natural resources, home economics, community development, and youth development; this agency was created by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 and is a cooperative venture of federal, state, and local governments
4-H Youth organization of children from 9 to 19 years of age; this organization is operated by the Cooperative Extension Service
FFA The student organization for students enrolled in high school agriculture courses
Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 Federal legislation that provided federal funds to support the teaching of agriculture in the public schools
Supervised agricultural experience (SAE) programs Hands-on learning activities participated in by high school agriculture students outside of normal class hours; in the past this involved growing crops or raising livestock but the scope of SAE programs now includes conducting agricultural experiments and working in agricultural firms
Vocational agriculture Term used to describe high school agricultural programs when job training was the primary emphasis; this term is not commonly used today
Vocational Education Act of 1963 Federal legislation that broadened the scope of high school agriculture programs to include all areas of agriculture. not just farming
Agricultural education is a far-reaching, multifaceted endeavor providing education in agriculture for children and adults. Agricultural education programs are offered by a variety of groups such as the public schools, community and technical colleges, universities, the Cooperative Extension Service, farm organizations, and youth programs such as 4-H and Scouting. Educational programs offered by these groups range from highly structured and formal programs to loosely structured and fragmentary programs. While there is little formal coordination between the various groups offering educational programs for youth and adults in agriculture they have all contributed to improving agriculture.
I. Public School Education in Agriculture
In the United States, structured programs of agricultural education are offered in about 10,000 public schools by some 12,000 teachers. The objectives of these school-based agricultural education programs are to acquaint students with agriculture and to prepare students for careers or further education in agriculture. The majority of agricultural education courses are offered in comprehensive high schools but there are agricultural programs in elementary schools, junior high/middle schools, area vocational schools, and specialized agricultural high schools.
The term "vocational agriculture" has commonly been used to describe the public school educational program in agriculture. However, during the 1960s and 1970s "agribusiness education" was used to describe the program because the scope of what was taught expanded to include agricultural areas other than just farming. During the 1980s the term agricultural education was used to describe the high school program because there was a change in the scope of the program, content of the curriculum, and program objectives. The objective of preparing students to enter an agricultural career immediately after high school remained, but additional importance was placed on teaching agricultural literacy, emphasizing the scientific principles involved in agriculture, and preparing students for further education in agriculture. Thus, the broader term of agricultural education is now typically used instead of vocational agriculture or agribusiness education.
A. The Development of Agricultural Education in the Public Schools
At the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th century, there was widespread criticism of public education. The critics charged that education was out of touch with the common person. Both the subjects being taught and the teaching methods used were under scrutiny. The teaching methods of lecturing, rote memorization, and verbatim recitations were widely used and abused. The classical subjects being studied such as Latin and Greek were viewed as largely irrelevant to an agrarian nation. Editors of farm publications, administrators of agricultural colleges, and other leading agriculturists and educators called for the inclusion of practical subjects such as agriculture in the public school curriculum.
The movement to teach agriculture in the public schools started slowly at the turn of the century but quickly gained momentum. Starting as early as 1903 legislators in Georgia and Louisiana required agriculture to be taught in the common schools. In the 1908 to 1913 era numerous states passed laws establishing the teaching of agriculture in the public schools. By 1915 agriculture was being taught across the nation in 4665 schools to 90,000 students. The agricultural subjects taught and the quality of the instructional program varied widely from community to community and state to state.
As the teaching of agriculture in
the public schools became established, there was a national movement to
pass federal legislation to provide federal support for the teaching of
agriculture and other vocational subjects. This movement culminated in
the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. This legislation provided
federal funds to support the teaching of home economics, trades and industry,
and agriculture in the public schools and provided funds for the training
and supervision of teachers. The Smith-Hughes Act also created a Federal
Board for Vocational Education. The Federal Board established national
standards of uniformity for agricultural programs, verified that agricultural
programs were meeting the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, and provided
national leadership for the program.
B. The High School Agricultural Curriculum
At one time, the high school program in agriculture could have been nicknamed the "sow, cow, plow" program. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 stated the purpose of vocational agriculture was to train people "who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm. " Thus, the early curriculum concentrated on preparing students to become farmers. The early vocational agriculture programs were found primarily in rural high schools and the students were typically boys. A traditional 4-year curriculum consisted of Agriculture I, II, III, and IV. In Agriculture I the boys were introduced to Animal Science, Soils, Plant Science, Record Keeping, and Agricultural Mechanics. In the first year they learned about the different breeds of livestock and how to select them, were taught basic soil science, were introduced to crop production, and learned how to use hand tools found on the farm. They also had instruction in leadership skills such as parliamentary procedure and public speaking. In subsequent years, the different areas of agriculture were studied in more depth. Considerable time was spent on livestock health, feeds and feeding, crop production, livestock housing, and farm mechanics. Economics and farm management were emphasized in the latter years. These agricultural classes were offered just like any other school subject, one period a day for the school year. The "sow, cow, plow" description of agricultural education was fairly consistent until 1963.
In 1963, there was a major change in the agricultural education curriculum due to new federal legislation. The Vocational Education Act of 1963 stated that "any amounts allotted... for agriculture may be used for vocational education in any occupation involving knowledge and skills in agricultural subjects, whether or not such occupation involves work on the farm." As a result of this new federal legislation, the curriculum in agricultural education was expanded to include new courses in areas such as horticulture, forestry and natural resources, agricultural sales and services, food processing, small animal care, and agricultural mechanics. No longer was agricultural education just for farming. These nonfarm agricultural courses were well received in suburban and urban school districts. These new courses were typically one period in length and lasted for a semester or for a year. Production agriculture (farming) was still taught in many schools, especially in rural areas. More female students started enrolling in high school agriculture because of the changing curriculum and the emphasis on civil rights and equity during the 1960s.
The authority of the federal government in prescribing how to operate agricultural education programs was limited by the Vocational Education Act of 1963. States were given considerable latitude in determining program requirements and curricular issues.
The Vocational Education Act of 1963 also provided funding for the development of area vocational schools. One county or several counties would jointly build a centrally located school where a comprehensive array of vocational education courses would be offered. Junior and senior students in local high schools who desired specialized vocational training would be transported to this centrally located facility where they would spend a half-day immersed in the study of a particular vocation. Specialized horticulture and agricultural mechanics programs were often found in these vocational schools. Depending upon the needs of the community, other specialized agricultural programs such as forestry, horse care and training, farm management, small animal care, and meat processing could be found at the vocational schools. Many area vocational schools established during the 1960s are still in operation today with a variety of specialized agricultural subjects being taught.
One by-product of the area vocational school idea was the establishment of specialized agricultural high schools. The Saul High School of Agriculture in Philadelphia, the Chicago High School of Agricultural Sciences, and the East Environmental Science and Agri-business Magnet School in Kansas City are three examples. These magnet high schools offer a wide array of agricultural courses in addition to academic subjects. Students come to these high schools for in-depth study of various agricultural disciplines.
During the 1980s the agricultural education curriculum evolved even further. The educational reform movement starting with the publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 followed by new vocational education legislation (Carl Perkins Act of 1984) and a 1988 National Research Council study of high school agricultural education (Understanding Agriculture New Directions for Education) all combined to cause additionalcurriculum changes in agricultural education. These changes resulted in greater emphasis on biotechnology and the scientific principles involved in agriculture. In a number of states science credit was awarded for completion of agricultural courses. High school agricultural students conducted experiments in plant growth, genetic engineering, and tissue culture. In addition to making the curriculum more scientific, new areas of study such as aquaculture and global agriculture were added to the curriculum. There was also a trend toward changing agricultural classes from year-long courses to semester-length courses.
Today the high school agricultural education curriculum varies greatly from state to state. In some states, such as Texas, there are 27 different semester-length agriscience and technology courses that can be offered. In other states, such as North Carolina, there are a smaller number of year-long agriculture courses that are taught. Regardless of the length of the course, there is typically an introductory course to agriculture titled "Introduction to Agriscience" or something similar. The introductory course provides a survey of agriculture with an emphasis on the scientific basis of agriculture. After the introductory course, the student may select from a variety of agricultural classes. A wide variety of courses may be taught such as biotechnology, horticulture, aquaculture, animal physiology, agricultural research, animal science, horse production, natural resources, crop science, forestry, agricultural sales, farm management, and agricultural mechanics. The actual courses taught in a school depend upon the size of the school and number of agriculture teachers, agricultural needs of the local community, and state curriculum guidelines. In some agrarian states, there is still a strong emphasis on production agriculture (farming) courses. There is a greater emphasis on horticulture and natural resources in the more urban states. Regardless of the type of state, there has been a marked increase on emphasizing biotechnology and agriscience in recent years. The curriculum in agricultural education today is far different from that called for in the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917.
C. Supervised Agricultural Experience Programs
One of the unique components of high school agricultural education programs is the Supervised Agricultural Experience (SAE) program. Students in the agriculture education program are expected to conduct a hands-on experiential learning program outside of the classroom. This program is supervised by the agriculture teacher and provides the student with the opportunity to apply skills and knowledge learned in the classroom to real world situations.
The supervised experience concept originated in 1908 with Rufus Stimson, Director of Smith's Agricultural School in Northampton, Massachusetts. Students in his school were required to grow farm crops or raise livestock on their home farm using practices taught to them in the agriculture classes. The agriculture teacher visited the students and supervised the program. When the results obtained by the students using improved farming methods were compared with standard farming practices of the day the value of the agricultural instruction was readily apparent. Based upon the success of the farming projects in Massachusetts, the authors of the Smith-Hughes Act included language in their bill requiring all agriculture students to have this "supervised practice." Over the years this concept has been know as a farming project, a supervised farming program, and a supervised occupational experience program. Originally, students grew crops or raised livestock.
Today there are a variety of ways in which students may conduct SAE programs. Placement programs involve the placement of students on farms and ranches, in agricultural businesses, in school laboratories, or in community facilities to provide a "learning by doing" environment. This is done outside of normal classroom hours and may be paid or nonpaid. Students keep records as to hours worked, type of work activities performed, and wages. Examples of placement SAE include working after school at a farm supply store, placement in a florist shop, working on Saturdays at a riding stable, and working in the school greenhouse after school and on weekends. A written agreement and training plan identify what is to be learned during the placement period.
Students may participate in exploratory activities, especially if they are first year students. Students spend short amounts of time working with, observing, or interviewing agricultural workers to learn about the type of activities they do. Students could also explore various agricultural opportunities by participating in field days, collecting materials, and engaging in similar exploratory activities. This type of SAE is appropriate for beginning agricultural students but is not restricted just to beginning students. This SAE activity is designed primarily to help students become literate in agriculture and/or become aware of possible careers in agriculture. Examples of exploratory SAE activities might include observing and/or assisting a florist, interviewing an agricultural loan officer in a bank, preparing a scrapbook on the work of a veterinarian, growing plants in a milk jug "greenhouse," assisting on a horse farm for a day, or attending an agricultural career day at the university.
In entrepreneurship SAE programs the student plans, implements, operates, and assumes financial risks in a farming activity or agricultural business. The students own the materials and other required inputs and keep financial records to determine return to investments. An SAE entrepreneurship program provides students the opportunity to develop the necessary skills to become established in their own business or gain employment. Examples of entrepreneurship activities include growing corn, operating a Christmas tree farm, growing bedding plants in the school greenhouse, raising pigs, and owning and operating a lawn care service. Many students have become established in farming through their entrepreneurial SAE programs.
An experimental SAE activity is where the student plans and conducts a major agricultural experiment using the scientific process. The purpose of the experiments is to provide students "hands-on" experience in verifying, learning, or demonstrating scientific principles in agriculture, discovering new knowledge or using the scientific process. In conducting an experimental SAE the student follows the scientific process. Examples of experimental SAE activities include comparing the effect of various planting media on plant growth, determining the impact of different levels of protein on fish growth, and comparing rooting hormones on plant root development.
Students who choose an analytical SAE must identify an agricultural problem that is not amenable to experimentation and design a plan to investigate and analyze the problem. The student gathers and evaluates data from a variety of sources and then produces some type of finished product. The product could be a marketing display or marketing plan for an agricultural commodity, a series of newspaper articles, a land use plan for a farm, a detailed landscape design for a community facility, an advertising campaign for an agribusiness, and so forth.
D. FFA-The Youth Organization
One component of the agricultural education program that is synonymous in the minds of many people with agricultural education is the FFA. The FFA is an organization composed of students who are enrolled in agricultural education. Originally the letters FFA stood for Future Farmers of America. But since agricultural education has evolved into an educational program much broader than just farming, the organization changed its official name in 1988 to the National FFA Organization.
The FFA was started in 1928 and was patterned after the Future Farmers of Virginia. The purpose of the organization is to provide an avenue for students to develop abilities in leadership, citizenship, and cooperation. Local FFA chapters, working through a committee structure, develop all annual program of activities they follow. This plan includes monthly meetings, often using agriculturists in the community as speakers. A typical plan of activities includes community service projects, recreational and social activities, and fund raising, and culminates in an awards banquet at the end of the school year.
The FFA has an incentives and awards program that ties in with classroom instruction and the supervised agricultural experience program. There are four degrees of membership; greenhand, chapter, state, and American. To advance to higher degrees the student must participate in FFA activities, demonstrate leadership skills, and conduct a quality SAE program. Proficiency awards, based on the students' SAE program, are presented at the local, state, and national levels. Students who have outstanding SAE programs in areas such as agricultural mechanics, livestock production, and placement in sales and services compete for these awards. There are more than 35 different categories of proficiency awards.
Along with degrees and proficiency awards, the FFA sponsors competitive events in areas such as parliamentary procedure, livestock judging, agriscience student of the year, public speaking, marketing, and farm management. FFA activities arc conducted on the local and regional level within a state, and at the state and national levels. The top level of competition occurs at the National FFA convention which is held every year in November in Kansas City, Missouri.
The colors of the FFA are national blue and corn gold. When schools in the South were segregated there was a parallel organization for black vocational agriculture students, the New Farmers of America (NFA). The FFA and NFA merged in 1965. The constitution of the FFA was amended in 1969 to allow girls to join. In 1971 a national FFA Alumni organization was formed. The Alumni organization has local and state affiliates and provides support to the FFA. For more information about the FFA or the FFA alumni organization, contact the National FFA Organization (National FFA Center, 6060 FFA Drive, P.O. Box 68960, Indianapolis, IN 46268-0960). [See WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE.]
E. Adult Education
Since the inception of agricultural education, many high school agriculture teachers have also taught night courses for adults in the community. The wording of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 stated that agricultural education was for those "who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm." The phrase those "who have entered upon" was interpreted to mean adults and out-of-school youth who may have dropped out of school to farm. During the 1920s and 1930s it was common for an agriculture teacher to offer instruction to three distinct groups of students. The first group of students were those enrolled in high school and were called the all-day students. Instruction of this group occurred during the normal school day. The second group of students were called part-time students and were young men from 16 to 25 years of age who might not have completed high school or had not been enrolled in agriculture while in high school. They met immediately after school was out for the day or at night. The third group were the adult farmers in the community and they were enrolled in the evening program.
Agriculture teachers took two primary approaches in teaching the evening program. One approach was to offer a course that contained a variety of topics. One week the lesson might be on dairy production, the next week on corn varieties, and the following week on tractors. An advisory group of farmers helped the agriculture teacher choose the topics to be studied. The teacher either taught the lesson or arranged to have a guest speaker.
The second approach to teaching in the evening program was to offer a more systematic course concentrating on one topic such as dairying. Each meeting would concentrate on some aspect of dairying such as disease control, feeding, or facilities. The agriculture teacher taught most of these classes.
Classes for adults were typically taught during the late fall and winter months when activity on the farm was not as intense. There would be 10-15 class sessions. During the 1930-1950 era, over half of the agriculture teachers in the United States offered adult classes.
The pattern for teaching adults established in the early days is still in operation today. Today, about 1200 agriculture teachers in different communities and states offer educational program for adults. However, the subject matter has changed, especially in the more urban areas. The agriculture teacher may teach courses on landscaping, floriculture, or gardening. The courses may be of a vocational or avocational nature. In the more agrarian regions of the country, the emphasis is still on production agriculture. Both general courses and specialized courses are taught.
In many school districts, especially the rural school districts, a special adult education program is organized just for young farmers. The educational and social needs of those getting established in farming is different from those who have already become established in farming. The educational program conducted for these 18 to 35 year olds has several unique characteristics. Both the husband and wife are generally involved in the educational program. The classes may meet in the school but often are conducted in the home of the young farmers on a rotating basis. Social events such as pot-luck suppers, volleyball games, and parties are an important component of the program. The young farmers play an active role in determining the topics to be covered in class and often help arrange for speakers. The agriculture teacher may teach some of the classes but often serves more as an advisor to the group. In some Midwestern states such as Indiana it is not uncommon for a high school to have two or three different young farmer groups.
In 21 states (AL, CA, CO, CT, GA, IA, IL, IN, KY, KS, MO, NE, OH, OK, PA, SC, TX, UT, VA, WA, WY) statewide young farmer associations exist. These associations have annual conventions where they have educational and social functions and compete in various activities such as debates, public speaking, and chapter competition. These 21 state associations comprise the National Young Farmer Educational Association. The National Association provides assistance to state and local affiliates, conducts an annual convention, and sponsors an incentives and awards program for members.
A third type of school-based adult education in agriculture is found in a number of midwestern and western states. Besides having the typical adult classes and young farmer programs mentioned previously, some school systems hire teachers whose sole responsibility is to teach adults. These teachers visit adult farmers during the day and provide consultation and assistance to the farmers. Night classes are also conducted. The primary emphasis of these adult programs is farm management. While some of the specialized adult teachers may be hired by local school systems as is the case in Minnesota and Ohio, the majority of the adult farm management teachers operate through the community or technical college system of the state. In the United States there are about 400 adult farm management teachers (found in NE, CO, SD, ND, ID, WA, OR, AZ, NM, UT, WI, MO, OH, and MN).
Special adult programs in agriculture were offered after World War II and the Korean War for veterans under the provisions of the GI Bill. The objective was to prepare the returning serviceman for the farm. High school agriculture teachers would teach veterans 3-4 nights a week. The veterans received money for attending the classes and the teachers were paid extra.
During the late 1950s and I960s several
events combined that resulted in less emphasis being placed on school-based
adult education in agriculture. The high school curriculum in agriculture
changed from just farming to include other areas of agriculture such as
food processing, forestry, and natural resources. Different types of students
(and parents) were associated with the high school agriculture program.
This group had not experienced adult education in the past and the need
for adult education in some of the new curriculum areas was not as evident
as that in farming. In many states, schools in rural areas were consolidated.
Instead of having readily identifiable community schools, one or two schools
might serve the entire county. There was a loss of community identity and
adults lost the feeling that the local school was "their school." Also,
television and other forms of communication emerged during this era to
compete for the attention of the adults. Today evening classes, young farmer
programs, and specialized adult teachers still operate in the pubic schools,
but the availability, extent, and type of adult education programs offered
vary greatly from community to community and from state to state.
F. Middle School Programs of Agricultural Education
Agricultural instruction is provided in some middle schools. The purpose of the instruction is to provide a general overview of agriculture and to acquaint students with the types of careers available in agriculture. Students are enrolled in the agricultural class for one or two grading periods and then rotate on to other courses such as art, industrial arts, or home economics.
G. The Teacher of Agriculture
The minimum requirement to be a high school teacher of agriculture is to have a baccalaureate degree in agricultural education. There are approximately 90 universities in the United States with teacher training programs in agriculture. Teacher education programs are found in land-grant colleges and in some regional universities. In order to offer a degree in agricultural education a university must offer courses in both education and agriculture. Students preparing to be agriculture teachers complete a variety of courses in both of these areas plus general education courses. Masters degrees in agricultural education are offered in most universities that have baccalaureate programs. Doctoral degrees in agricultural education arc offered in about 10 land-grant universities.
H. The Governance of Agricultural Education
Each state has one or more individuals in the state department of education who have supervisory and administrative responsibilities for agricultural education. These individuals are called supervisors or consultants and they provide guidance and direction to the agricultural programs within their states. Working cooperatively with the teachers, they determine the curriculum and program standards, and help coordinate FFA activities.
At the national level, two agricultural education specialists are located in the United States Department of Education. These specialists interact with state agricultural education officials, serve in a liaison position with other educational and agricultural groups at the national level, and work with the FFA. Prior to the passage of the Vocational Education Act of 1963 there were 10-12 agricultural education specialists at the federal level. They ascertained that the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act were being followed in the various states and provided leadership in areas such as adult education, farm mechanics, and curriculum development on a national level.
In the early 1980s the various constituent groups (teachers, supervisors, teacher educators, young farmers, alumni, etc.) involved in public school education in agriculture saw the need to develop a national organization to provide leadership and serve as a voice for the agricultural education profession. Accordingly, the National Council for Agricultural Education was established in 1984. Representatives of the various groups involved in public school education in agriculture comprise the Council. The Council serves as a think tank and advocate for agricultural education at the national level.
I. Professional Organizations in Agricultural Education
High school, post-secondary, and middle school agriculture teachers belong to the National Vocational Agriculture Teachers Association (NVATA) [Note: Since this article was written the NVATA has changed their name to National Association of Agricultural Educators (NAAE]. State supervisors belong to the National Association of Supervisors of Agricultural Education (NASAE). Teacher educators belong to the American Association for Agricultural Education (AAAE). Most teachers, supervisors, and teacher educators also belong to the American Vocational Association (AVA). The three agricultural education organizations hold their annual meetings in conjunction with the annual meeting of the American Vocational Association. Adult farm management instructors belong to the National Farm and Ranch Business Management Education Association. They may also belong to the NVATA.
II. Postsecondary Education in Agriculture
Education in agriculture for youth and adults is not limited to the public high schools and middle schools. Community and technical colleges offer a variety of courses in agriculture. Also 4-year agricultural colleges offer short courses and 2-year associate degree programs in agriculture. Baccalaureate and graduate programs in agriculture are described in another article. [See EDUCATION: UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE UNIVERSITY.]
In the United States between 500 and 600 community and technical colleges offer agricultural courses. These courses can be taken as stand along single courses, be part of a 1-year certificate program or a 2-year associate degree program, and in some cases be transfer courses to a 4-year college. Students can enroll in a single course just to learn more about a specific agricultural topic or they can enroll in program for career preparation purposes. Courses and curricula exist in a variety of agricultural areas such as agricultural mechanics, floriculture, swine management, agricultural sales, veterinarian technology, nursery management, horse production and care, farm management, and greenhouse production.
The national Postsecondary Agricultural Student (PAS) association is a student organization for agricultural students in the community and technical colleges. It was formed in 1979 and is loosely patterned after the FFA.
Several universities have special educational programs in agriculture for adults. One example is the winter short course at Purdue University in Indiana. Ten to twelve courses focusing on animal agriculture, plant agriculture, and general agriculture are taught. The courses are offered during an 8-week span starting in January and extending through March. The courses are taught on the main campus by university faculty members but the courses do not carry academic credit. The structure of the program is like a miniature semester; students enroll in several different courses, do homework, and have exams. The emphasis of the short course is on practical application of the latest technology and research. Young farmers and adults enroll in the winter school. A similar program is offered at the University of Wisconsin.
North Carolina State University offers a 2-year program called the Agricultural Institute. The Institute is a 2-year, terminal academic program that provides education and training in food science, agriculture, horticulture, turf grass management, and agribusiness. Students in this program enroll in specialized courses in agriculture that emphasize application and hands-on activities. The courses are taught on the main campus of the university by university facility members. These courses do not transfer to a 4-year program. Virginia Tech, the University of Maryland, and the University of Massachusetts have similar programs.
The Ohio State University offers a program similar to that of North Carolina State but the program has its own campus and faculty. The Agricultural Technical Institute (ATI) is located in Wooster, Ohio. Specialized 2-year courses of study are offered in a wide variety of agricultural fields. However, a number of the courses at the ATI can be transferred to 4-year agricultural colleges.
Some universities offer 2-year associate degrees in agriculture but the courses are primarily the same as those taken by 4-year students. After 2 years the students may take their associate degree and enter the labor market or they may transfer into a 4-year academic program. Some of the universities with this type of program are the Pennsylvania State University, Michigan State University, University of Minnesota, Ohio State University, Purdue University, and the University of New Hampshire.
Ill. Cooperative Extension Service
The organization that has the largest agricultural educational program in the world is the Cooperative Extension Service (CES). The Cooperative Extension Service is a cooperative venture of federal, state, and local governments. [See COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE.]
In the early 1900s America was predominately an agrarian nation and farmers needed help in improving their farming practices. The findings of the agricultural research being conducted at the land-grant colleges was not readily available to the farmers. A method for transferring agricultural research findings and scientific knowledge about farming from the universities to the farmer was needed. In many states various activities such as traveling railroad car exhibits, demonstration farms, farmers institutes, agricultural fairs, and meetings of agricultural societies were sponsored by universities, federal and state departments of agriculture, and private citizens in an attempt to disseminate agricultural knowledge. In 1914 the federal government passed the Smith-Lever Act which established a nationwide extension system that operates at the state and county level. The purpose of the extension service was to transmit information from the agricultural colleges to the people. Today, the cooperative extension service still transmits information to people but the type of information disseminated and the people served have been expanded.
The Cooperative Extension Service is found in nearly every county in the United States. The county extension office is staffed by one or more extension agents. A common model is to find an agricultural agent, a home economics agent, and a 4-H agent. In more populous counties there could be several additional agents such as community development agents and horticultural agents. In less populous counties, there may not be a 4-H agent. The agricultural agent and home economics agents would then handle 4-H activities. The type and number of agents employed in a county depend upon the needs of the county.
The educational programs and services offered by the extension service at the county level are varied. The extension service publishes a large number of educational brochures on a variety of topics that are available to the public. Classes and meetings are held in local communities. Examples of meetings could be lawn care, nutrition, raising children, handling agricultural wastes, pesticide safety, and rural zoning. Advisory committees in each county provide advice as to the type of education programs needed. Extension agents are also available for individual consultation. If a farmer or homeowner was having a disease or insect problem, the agricultural agent would visit the farmer or homeowner, identify the problem, and provide suggestions for solving the problem.
County extension agents are supported by a state extension staff. The state extension staff is located at the land-grant college in each state. Besides performing administrative and leadership functions, the state staff develops the educational publications used at the county level and develops educational aids such as slide programs and displays. The state staff also includes subject matter specialists who assist county agents in conducting education programs and in solving problems.
A widely recognized component of the extension
service is the 4-H program. The 4-H program is an educational and leadership
development program for young people between the ages of 9 and 19. The
4H members are generally organized into clubs. The clubs may be community
based or can be composed of individuals from throughout a county who have
common interests such as a horse club or beef cattle club. The clubs meet
regularly, have educational programs, plan and conduct service activities,
and hold social functions.
IV. Other Agricultural Programs for Youth and Adults
A. Ag in the Classroom
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides leadership for a program called Ag in the Classroom. This is an educational program that operates in the elementary schools. The objective of this program is to acquaint elementary students with agriculture. While the USDA provides leadership for the program, the implementation of the program varies from state to state.
Typically, sets of instructional materials are provided to elementary teachers. The instructional materials include lesson plans, student activities, and visual aids. The lessons are on agricultural topics but are integrated with the state curriculum guides for each grade level. For example, if a unit on plant growth is to be taught at a certain elementary grade, the Ag in the Classroom materials would contain all the information that would normally be taught about plant growth but the illustrations and examples would be on agricultural crops grown in that state. Agricultural coloring books, agricultural videos, and an agricultural newspaper similar to the "Weekly Reader" are also used. Trips to agricultural colleges and community agricultural expositions may be conducted.
Workshops are held in the summer for elementary teachers to teach them how to use the materials. In some states, such as Idaho, special "hands-on" programs are held for elementary teachers at the state agricultural college. Teachers actually perform agricultural tasks.
The administration and funding of the Agriculture in the Classroom program varies from state to state. In Iowa, the state department of agriculture coordinates the program. In North Carolina, the Farm Bureau operates the program with financial support from other agricultural industries. In Idaho, an educational foundation has been established to operate the Ag in the Classroom program and funds are provided by private donations and the state legislature.
B. Boy Scouts of America
While the Boy Scouts are not thought of as an agricultural education program, they do offer several merit badges related to agriculture. If a scout desires to work on an agricultural merit badge, he obtains a merit badge booklet that contains information about the subject. He studies this information and then completes a number of required projects or activities related to the merit badge.All of this is done under the supervision of an adult who has expertise in the agricultural field being studied. Boy scout merit badges are available in agribusiness, animal science, bee keeping, botany, farm mechanics, forestry, gardening, horseman ship, landscape architecture, plant science, rabbit raising, soil and water conservation, and veterinary science.
Historically, agricultural education programs in the high school and educational programs conducted by the Cooperative Extension Service were the primary sources of education in agriculturefor youth and adults. These two groups are still vitally involved in this task, but the scope and content of what they teach have expanded. Other groups have also joined in the educational effort.
Bibliography
Dormody, T. (1992, Oct.). Integrating science and agriculture. The Agricultural Education Magazine 12-13.
Dwyer, D. A. (1992, Jan.). The agri-business magnet high school: A new approach to agricultural education. The Agricultural Education Magazine 15-17.
Hughes, M., and Barrick, R. K. (1993, Fall). A model for agricultural education in public schools. J. Agricult. Educ. 59-67.
Knebel, E. H., and Richardson, W. B. (1982). "Terminology in Agricultural Education." American Association for Vocational Instructional Materials, Athens, GA.
National Research Council (1988). "Understanding Agriculture: New Directions for Education." National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Phipps, L. J., and Osborne, E. W. (1988). "Handbook on Agricultural Education in Public Schools." Interstate, Danville, IL.
"The Status of Adult Education in Agriculture" (1992). National Council for Agricultural Education, Alexandria, VA.
Stimson, R. W., and Lathrop, F. W. (1942). "History of Agricultural Education of Less than College Grade in the United States." U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.