Genetic Engineering and its Consequences

Homa Azargoon

Genetics in Human Affairs

GN301, 9:10

April12, 2002

I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this assignment

Part A

Genetic engineering, or the deliberate alteration of an organism's genes by human intervention, has become one of the largest issues in the field of genetics. Since 1953, when scientists discovered the workings of the genetic system, scientists have learned how to change the composition of genes and how to change the basic traits of an organism. By snipping genes out of cells and adding them to other cells, molecular biologists have the ability to create new properties that have never been seen before (Kolata, 94). Currently, this technique offers the possibility to improve many different aspects of life.

It was two molecular biologists, Stanley Cohen of Stanford University and Herbert Boyer of the University of California at San Francisco in 1972 who had the inspiration and marked the beginning of genetic engineering. Since Boyer was working on restriction enzymes, which function to slice through stands of DNA wherever they find a particular sequence of bases and Cohen had found ways to imitate conjugation by removing plasmids from bacterial cells and inserting them into other bacteria, both decided to combine their knowledge for a series of experiments. For the first time, Boyer and Cohen put altered E. coli plasmids into bacteria that normally would be killed by the antibiotics tetracycline and kanamycin and found that when the bacteria was transferred to a culture dish containing both antibiotics, some of it survived. From this experiment, Boyer and Cohen first showed that ". . .new plasmids functioned when put into bacteria, and they were reproduced when the bacteria multiplied" (Yount, 63). This new technique that was created by the two scientists became known as recombinant DNA, which plays a major role in genetic engineering.

If it were not for the discovery made by Cohen and Boyer, further experiments would not have been carried out and genetic engineering would not have been revealed. However, since the two scientists had created the new technique of recombinant DNA, scientists had come up with extraordinary findings in the next few years. In fact, "In the next few years, scientists not only moved genes from one living thing to another but cloned or duplicated genes, altered them by changing their sequence of bases, and changed their activity by moving them to different places on the genome. All these artificial changes became known as genetic engineering" (Yount, 63). Currently, these same artificial changes that were discovered years ago currently play major roles in plants, animals, and most importantly, medicine.

Since the beginning of agriculture thousands of years ago, farmers have been working their hardest to product the hardiest, tastiest and most abundant food crops possible. Today however, not much work is needed to produce such agricultural products. With genetic engineering, the taste, hardiness, and abundance of a food crop can be prearranged. In fact, the first genetically engineered food, the Flavr Savr tomato has appeared in the supermarkets. Containing a new gene that slows the production of an enzyme that causes the tomato to soften, genetic engineering has created a tomato designed to stay fresh longer than ordinary tomatoes (Swisher, 17). Additionally, scientists have already been able to engineer wheat and rice plants to increase the yield by "...producing shorter, stiffer stalks that help the plants survive and grow in severe weather" (Swisher, 14). The goal for scientists in the future however is to reduce or eliminate the use of chemicals, to grow plants in conditions where they previously would not grow, to reduce spoilage and waste, and to increase production.

Animals play a more extensive role in genetic engineering than plants play. Not only do researchers engineer animals to improve the food supply, but also for basic research. Genetic engineering promises to increase livestock productivity by "...generating more meat and milk from a smaller investment in feed and animals" (Swisher, 32). Additionally, to reduce the loss of farm animals, genetically engineered vaccines that prevent diseases have been created that at the same time "...eliminate both the need to fortify feed with costly antibiotics and the risk that humans could ingest excessive amounts of antibiotics through milk and meat and become immune to antibiotics" (Swisher, 32). For the future, scientists are conducting research on the use of foreign genes to produce new features in animals. For example, "...researchers in Australia are working on transplanting genes to make sheep's wool grow faster and to make sheep drop their wool at a particular time, thus eliminating the need for shearing" (Swisher, 36). More importantly however, scientists use animals for basic research where thousands of experiments are conducted in order to "...refine techniques to add, delete, recombine, edit, and insert genetic material" (Swisher, 38). Without a doubt, animals will continue to play an important role in genetic engineering.

Most importantly however, genetic engineering has opened new ideas and opportunities for medicine, which beyond a shadow of a doubt, are advancing everyday. In fact, "...genetic engineering has the potential to conquer cancer, grow new blood vessels in the heart, block the growth of blood vessels in tumors, create new organs from stem cells, and perhaps even reset the primeval genetic coding that causes cells to age" (Isaacson, 42). Scientists have worked on and are still working on identifying disease-causing genes, screening for diseases in individuals, the treatment of diseases with

engineered drugs, and the genetic engineering of an individual's "bad" genes. This field is advancing so fast, that "In 1958 scientists had identified approximately four hundred genetic disorders; by 1994 they had identified between four and five thousand" (Swisher, 45). In December of 1998, the number of identified genetic disorders was roughly 10,000 and this number increased again in 2002 when approximately 13,000 genetic disorders have been identified (NCBI). Without a doubt, these numbers will continue to grow. Overall, genetic engineering has proved to be one of the most important advancements in the history of genetics. From the time of its discovery to now, it has been used endlessly in various fields that surround us everyday. Stated by Yount, "Genetic engineering has created bacteria that churn out lifesaving drugs, plants that produce their own pesticides, and cattle that make human milk hormones. Doctors have even treated human disease by altering genes" (Yount, x). Without a doubt, genetic engineering holds the key to the future of plants, animals, and of human beings, which is now really on the horizon (Kolata, 233).

Part B

The century of the gene, depending on the person, has either brought about fascinating breakthroughs or disturbing technologies. While scientists are racing to find ways of improving plants, agriculture, medicine, and human offspring, many controversies are being brought about. Some controversies may be personal, societal, or economic but more likely, they tend to be ethical and are different for every use of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering has been one of the biggest technologies that has changed us and will continue to do so throughout this century.

Generally speaking, people question corporate use of genetic engineering. Although genetic engineering will revolutionize the way we grow food and care for our environment, people question genetic engineering. What may be questioned is how corporations may allow their profit-making motive take over their ethical responsibility to take public health into consideration. Also, some worry that industry will neglect essential and necessary, but unprofitable, research to solve human health problems and that there will not be a sufficient amount of government funds to allow health projects to continue (Swisher, 11).

Although genetically engineered plants hold the possibility to increase the world's food supply and reducing the cost of production, molecular biologists worry that various species of viruses and bacteria may cause harm. For example, bacterium inserted into plant genes may kill particular, helpful insects. This in effect, would have an effect on other life forms. To deal with this problem, the government has given scientists permission to test their genetically engineered plants in controlled field tests. Additionally, scientists are concerned that bacterium could produce side effects by going awry, resulting in harmful and unexpected consequences such as spreading into the environment, threatening the health of animals, and most importantly, humans. Also, plants may lose their nutritional value and acquire allergy-causing substances that would create problems for allergy sensitive people. All of these concerns dramatically increase the need for safety regulations in altered plants, especially to be approved for public consumption, which the majority of the public does not respect and appreciate in the first place. However, despite the possible consequences of genetically engineered plants,

scientists focus on the positive aspects to the technology like efficient plants, growing on formerly unproductive land, and increased food production (Swisher, 31).

The use of animals in research is what makes medical breakthroughs in genetic engineering possible. However, depending on a person's view of genetic engineering will determine whether or not they agree with using animals in experimentation. Those who favor genetic engineering think the knowledge gained through research outweighs any disadvantages. Opponents to genetic engineering on the other hand, mostly animal-right activists, think that this technology brings about additional new abuses and extreme suffering to animals. In fact, one opponent strongly stated, ". . .we begin to reduce all other animals on this planet to genetically engineered products. . .we will increasingly think of ourselves as just gene codes and blueprints and programs that can be tinkered with" (Swisher, 43). However, others who see genetic engineering as a great technological advance believe that animals in higher stock productivity, reducing the loss of farm animals, and understanding some of the greatest secrets in life would definitely outweigh all disadvantages. A person who was not against such a technology stated that genetic engineering is ". . .an exciting, intellectually stimulating enterprise; an area of study that is bound to accelerate our understanding of how living things work" (Swisher, 43). Only after determining how living things function can one incorporate it into one of the new and most controversial issues of all time - genetically engineered offspring.

In the past decade, medical researchers have come across new discoveries in genetic engineering. More specifically, scientists have discovered technology capable of creating human beings. However, these human beings are advanced and carry modified physical appearances, athletic abilities, intelligence, and life spans. While there has been

much debate over this issue, a vast majority of couples do not take the consequences of genetic engineering into consideration. Without a doubt, genetic engineering would cause part of the population to be biologically advanced, while the other part of the population would remain biologically "inferior." It is this division where biologically created humans would be set apart from their engineered "superiors" in school, work, and society.

School and work make up the bulk of everyday lives, and genetic engineering would offer the best opportunities only to the "superior race" of humans. This leaves the non-engineered human with a sense of feeling "handicapped" that can be seen in school and the workplace. In school, children that are biologically engineered would posses unfair advantages over "normal" children -- athletic abilities and intelligence. According to Whole Earth, athletic ability can be enhanced to the degree where parents are able to ". . .choose an infant's production of red blood cells so he/she can excel as a long-distance bicyclist. . ." (Designer kids). By not modifying genes to enhance the athletic abilities of a child, non-

engineered children would have to face tremendous challenges. Generally speaking, all the hard work, time, and practice put into a sport would amount to nothing for a biologically "normal" child because the skills and techniques practiced would already be established in engineered children. It is with these acquired athletic abilities that "superior" children strip away the opportunities that motivated, non-engineered children work towards so persistently.

Opportunities are also stripped away from biologically "normal" children in schools and in the workplace when it comes to being intelligent. There is no doubt that it is unjust to genetically prearrange a gene for intelligence into a child. While non-engineered children make efforts to increase their intelligence by consistently studying and researching in school, genetically engineered children would not have to make such an effort to excel. Instead, the "superior race" is able to attend school with a level of intelligence that had been prearranged for them through genetic engineering. In this respect, biologically engineered children would be left with fewer chances in the long run because the "superior race" would make up a larger percentage of the workplace.

It is in the workplace where unfair advantages are most evident for a biologically "normal" population. In fact, a sort of discrimination develops where non-engineered humans are seen as not having the same amount of potential found in engineered humans. This potential that workplaces look for refers to the enhanced traits that make genetically engineered humans so "superior." With this potential, companies would no longer have to take the time or spend the money to train any individual. This is because companies would see engineered humans as "work machines" for they would be naturally intelligent, efficient, and reliable at every task they perform. In this sense, competition for jobs would not take place among equal individuals, but between the "superior" and "inferior" races of mankind. As a result of this battle between the "races", biologically "normal" humans end up with a life full of obstacles and shattered dreams that promote the "superior race" in society.

Another consequence of genetic engineering is that it promotes the division of social classes within a society. According to a eugenics website, "Since access to such expensive technology would be on the basis of ability to pay, we could see the emergence of biologically as well as financially advantage ruling elites" (cahge@globalnet). This obviously supports that wealthy elites would advance to be a stronger, "superior" class,

while the middle and low classes that could not afford such technology would degrade to an even weaker, inferior position. This social consequence of human genetic engineering would disrupt the social order to the point where it would be disastrous. Ignoring the consequences of genetic engineering, the "superior" class would certainly attempt to enhance their offspring by engineering them to ". . .conform to social norms with regard to physical ability, appearance, and aptitudes" (cahge@globalnet). If this were to occur often enough, wealthy elites would remain the ruling class in society, doing so by passing on traits that are socially desirable. By and large, human genetic engineering would create widespread gaps amidst social classes in society.

However, genetic engineering could be acceptable but only if it is only used to treat diseases. In some cases, genetic engineering could be preferable but not necessary. Researchers agree that the main advantage of human genetic engineering is the elimination of diseased genes from a family. Many couples may believe that various diseases could be cured with human genetic engineering, but in reality only ". . . 2 percent of all diseases can be directly traced to a single gene mutation" (Designer kids). Knowing this, we are left seeing that human genetic engineering is obviously being abused. Instead of curing an individual of a life threatening disease, genetic engineering is used in extreme ways to genetically enhance children.

All in all, plant, animal and human genetic engineering have both potent consequences and benefits. Human genetic engineering however, proves to pose the greatest controversy in the biotechnological industry. With human genetic engineering mankind would be divided into a "superior" and "inferior" race, creating unjust opportunities for the engineered humans, leaving non-engineered humans at a

disadvantage. Although human genetic engineering is an advantage in curing a few diseases, many could wind up abusing this technique to engineer perfect "machines". Without question, "In a world dominated by competition, parents understandably want to give their kids every advantage. . .struggling to ensure that their little bundle of joy is not left behind in the genetic race" (Genetic Engineering). With enhanced traits the "superior race" would, beyond a shadow of a doubt, excel in school, take over in the workplace, and remain the most powerful class in society.