Overview 1980, Department of Horticultural Science
Introduction
Horticulture was a small industry in North Carolina in
1880. It had a wholesale production value of about $1,025,000
at that time and much of this was grown for home consumption.
Modest progress was made up to World War I but then the
two wars and the depression between them raised havoc with
the industry (see Fig. 1). After World War II a new era
of dynamic growth began and continues today.
Experimentation of refrigerated transport of fresh produce
began along about the 1850's. In 1854 the steamer Roanoke
transported the first shipment of vegetables from Norfolk,
Virginia to New York City. Development of the fresh produce
transportation industry waited until the advent of refrigerated
rail shipment. This came about in the 1880's. The first
rail shipment of vegetables to New York City from Norfolk,
Virginia was in 1885, from North Carolina in 1887, and from
Charleston, South Carolina in 1888.
Professor Massey was the first horticulturist and was hired
in 1889. The first emphasis he placed on a research program
was variety trials of fruits and vegetables to identify
those best suited to shipment to the northern markets. Professor
Massey's foresight as well placed because beginning about
1900 a rapid development of rail shipment of vegetables
and fruit began. This enabled North Carolina to emerge as
an important horticultural production area along with some
other states in the South and in the West.
Very modest manpower existed in horticulture between 1889
and the end of World War II. There were only 3 people in
the horticulture area in 1920 and these shared the teaching,
research, and extension responsibilities. At he end of World
War II there were a total of 89 horticulturists. It is interesting
to note that the investment in manpower shortly precedes
the growth curve of the horticulture industry a hole in
N.C. This is true of commodity area curves as well.
Following 1945 the expansion in horticultural scientists,
the development of truck transportation, and the general
improvement of the economy teamed up to usher in the current
expansive era we are enjoying.
The $217 million value of commercial horticulture and $150
million value of home gardens in 1975 is impressive but
the hidden values were even greater. Forty percent of the
food consumption of Americans comes from horticultural products.
An even greater percentage of the minerals and vitamins
of Americans is derived from horticultural products. In
this age of urbanization and mechanization mans realization
of his dependence on nature is becoming even more acute.
One cannot determine the emotional value of greenways parks,
city plantings, home gardens, and interior plantings. The
intimate involvement of landscaping in all development is
becoming more a necessity than a luxury in terms of the
mental well-being of man. Again no value has been placed
on this current endeavor of Horticultural Science.
The remainder of the story of Horticultural research begins
in the time period between the two world wars. It is divided
into 4 commodity areas, flower crops, nursery crops, fruits,
and vegetables as well a one cross commodity tropic "New
and Improved Varieties." This latter section is important
because of the early endeavors and a significant portion
of current efforts in this department were in the area of
plant breeding.
Floral Crops
Floriculture had a modest beginning near the time of the
initiation of the N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station.
There were 16 flower growers in operation in 1890 with a
combined greenhouse area of 28,000 sq. ft. The wholesale
value of their crop in that year was $111,000. The accompanying
graph shows the production area and dollar value growth
over the past century along with the scientific manpower
given over to floriculture. It is very significant that
the growth curves follow the manpower curve. A number of
scientific breakthroughs occurred beginning about 12948.
Some of these were pioneered by the N. C. College of Agriculture
faculty and others were adopted and fostered by our faculty.
In any event the successful incorporation of these into
N. C. floriculture was due in great measure to the activities
of the floriculture faculty.
It should be noted that research, extension and teaching
assignments were combined in varying degrees among these
faculty. It is very difficult to separate the research efforts
from extension and teaching efforts for the purpose of assessing
individual effects upon the industry. Nevertheless we shall
take a look at the sequence of research endeavors which
so greatly accounted for the phenomenal growth of floriculture
since the late 1940's.
About 1948 the photoperiodic manipulation of floral crops
to time their flowering and to flower them out of season
came into being. This scientific breakthrough was fostered
in North Carolina. Patterson's Greenhouses in Shelby were
one of the first ranges in the nation to adopt this technique
that ultimately led to the establishment of the chrysanthemum
as the leading cut flower in the United States and the world.
In the 1950's, an expansive period in the development of
applicable research, mist propagation was highly refined
and adapted by our scientists. North Carolina florists and
nurserymen alike adapted the system greatly reducing their
cutting losses during propagation. This was a great force
in enhancing further growth of both industries.
Disease prevention at that time was labor intensive, a
factor that could stand up to competition. The development
of soil fungicidal drenches and steam as well as chemical
pasteurization of soil solved this problem. Although these
techniques were not developed in North Carolina, it was
our scientists who seized upon these techniques and refined
them for the industry.
In 1957 Gartner and McIntyre, NCSU, published an article
pertaining to their research on day-length control to better
manipulate the flowering of the poinsettia. This research
was instrumental in improving the timing of poinsettia flowering,
resulting in higher quality poinsettias for the consumer.
Excessive height of potted plants has been a problem with
commercial flower growers as they have followed cultural
procedures that result in vigorous, healthy plants. Researchers
at NCSU have been leaders in research on the use of chemical
growth regulators to control height of poinsettias, potted
chrysanthemums, hydrangeas, Easter lilies and bedding plants.
These growth regulators have enabled the growers to continue
to follow optimum cultural practices and yet produce plants
of an acceptable size.
Research efforts in the 1960s were intensified and a higher
degree of pioneering work was undertaken. The azalea traditionally
was only available as a flowering potted plant from late
autumn to late spring. The NCSU research studies that were
conducted on environmental control of azalea flowering proved
that high-quality flowering azalea points could be available
throughout the year. The high cost of azalea production
has prevented greater realization of benefits from this
program but new cultural practices make the program more
economically feasible.
The feasibility of using nature by-products for root media
in the nursery and greenhouse had been demonstrated but
it was our scientists who developed systems for using pine
bark which led to North Carolina as the first state to use
such media on a major scale. The economic benefits from
using this highly effective and inexpensive substitute have
further contributed to the profitability of our industry.
In the early 1960's Lunt and Kofranek at the University
of California at Los Angeles reported the results of their
investigations with encapsulated fertilizers. The research
was expanded upon by researchers in the Department of Horticultural
Science at North Carolina State University and this later
research did much to make slow-release fertilizer commercially
practical. Almost every flower grower in the United States
today uses slow-release fertilizer in some part of the crop
nutritional program. Our floricultural nutrition program
as a whole is one of the most extensive in the nation. In
addition to delving into specific problems of the North
Carolina industry such as ammonium toxicity, copper deficiency,
etc. we have been a leader in the development of fertilization
programs and foliar analysis systems for monitoring crop
nutrition.
The Phytotron at NCSU has enabled faculty to be in the
forefront in environmental investigations. Poinsettia research
conducted in the NCSU Phytotron produced temperature guidelines
now followed by growers throughout the world. Other meaningful
studies have been conducted on geraniums, azaleas, bedding
plants, chrysanthemums, hydrangeas, gloxinias, and Easter
lilies.
Research in the 1970's is commanded a much better control
on the future of the floriculture industry. Considerably
more interdepartmental research was underway. Studies were
being made in conserving heat in the greenhouse and in developing
solar assisted heating systems. Extensive progress has been
made on bringing in potentially new crops and in developing
commercial systems of culture for these.
The Future
The future of floriculture is extremely optimistic and
even more so in North Carolina. Tradition ally we have marketed
to the upper 20% of American wage earners. Fifteen years
ago a movement to market to all people had its rocky beginnings.
Its progress was hardly perceptible at first but now it
is a formidable force that will not be stopped. In 1958
retail value of floriculture in the United States was $905
million, in 1967 $1.75 billion and in 1976 was anticipated
to be $3.65 billion. The wholesale value of production today
in the United States is $900 million while in 8 countries
of Western Europe it is $2.25 billion (2 1/2 times larger).
There, a well-developed mass market exists. There is no
question the U. S. volume of production can quadruple in
the next 2 decades. The question remains as to where the
growth will take place.
North Carolina can gain a lion's share of business. The
formerly large production areas located in northern states
are suffering from a declining rate of growth. Factors including
the disproportionate role of fuel in total expenses, land
use policies, and industrial competition will continue for
some time to give North Carolina a competitive advantage
over the former strongholds of northern states in this industry,
North Carolina is fortunate to be located far enough north
to be able to take advantage of controlled environment culture
where insects and disease can be controlled. It is also
in a very favorable geographical position relative to major
markets in the United States being located within 500 miles
of such centers as Atlanta, Washington, Philadelphia, Baltimore
and New York.
With continued strong support, the $23.8 million floriculture
industry in North Carolina could quadruple by the turn of
this century.
Future research emphasis must be placed on the following
areas:
- Feasibility studies to determine which crops we can
grow profitably under conditions of a saturated market
that is certain to come one day. It is important that
we identify and establish ourselves in these crop areas
before competitive regions do so.
- Introduction of new pot plant crops to service our rapidly
growing mass-market demand.
- Development of shorter cultural programs for some of
our pot plant crops in order to extend the range of prices
asked in the new marketplaces thereby increasing the range
of American customers.
- New systems for growing fast crop cut flowers that are
better suited to short stem, mixed bouquets. This approach
along with the establishment of new greenhouse cut flower
crops including garden type flowers should provide a product
that can open up mass market sales to cut flowers. Currently
cut flowers constitute a no-growth industry in the United
States. The major problem is that current cut flower production
and packaging dos not lend itself to mass marketing.
- Alternative sources of energy for heating and greater
conservation of energy through the use of radiant energy
reflective plastic films and other helpful systems.
- Research is needed in the area of post harvest handling
including packaging, preservatives, in hyperbaric storage,
keeping quality in the market distribution channel, and
acclimatization similar to consumer environments.
The future is bright in North Carolina floriculture if
we continue to provide the technological support. The 3%
of American production that comes from North Carolina is
an ominous reminder that complacency could easily lead to
obliteration of our industry. On the other hand a 3% piece
of the market tells us even more strongly that we have an
incredible growth potential. Testimony to this is our present
strong growth rate, the advantageous conditions which exist
in North Carolina for a massive floriculture industry, and
the human technological resources at hand in North Carolina.
Nursery Crops
Production of nursery crops was well established in North
Carolina in the 1800's and has shown continued growth to
the present.
Since 1950, a growth of 200% has occurred in the industry
when inflation rates are considered. Today there are 1,700
registered growers producing a wide range of crops. North
Carolina has a wide range of climatic conditions, making
possible production of many kinds of landscape plants. The
eastern part of the state is suited for production of containerized
southern plants such as azaleas, camellias, and hollies;
the Piedmont for production of a variety of field and container
stock; and the mountains for conifers, rhododendrons sand
native plants. Labor, water and raw materials are adequate
for expansion of the nursery crops industry and it is favorably
located in relation to the population of urban areas from
Atlanta to New York as ready markets.
The greatest problem facing the nursery industry of the
state concerns its historical development. The industry
is made up of many small part-time producers or large producers
have evolved from such a condition. In general, most lack
an appreciation of technical methods, recent innovations
and are poorly equipped for business and economic aspects
of production and sales. They often have poor production
efficiency, are uncertain about products to grow, where
and how to market. These characteristics are true for the
United States nursery industry as a whole but North Carolina
growers are considerably below levels of competing states.
Adequate technology exists for effective production. Nationally,
major changes have occurred in the past decad3e and include
controlled environment propagation, container culture, liquid
feed and slow-release nutrition, synthetic media, better
weed control, mechanization in soil mixing, potting and
digging, cold storage facilities and improved transportation,
However, information is scattered and not in a form for
ready utilization. County extension personnel are often
untrained in nursery technology and there is often difficulty
in getting nursery growers to accept changes in production
or introduction of new products.
North Carolina State University - Nursery Background
Although a few sporadic scattered tests on nursery materials
occur in the early history at NCSU, a research program was
not initiated until the appointment of E. L. McElwee in
1950. From 1979-1973, one to three people were involved
at any given time in nursery work. The major result of these
programs has been refinement of intermittent mist propagation,
new chemical weed control methods and development and release
of cold and heat tolerant azalea cultivars. Through extension
contact and publications, technological changes from throughout
the United States have been communicated to the industry
resulting in slow evolutionary changes,
Personnel retirements, moves and creation of new positions
has resulted in a new beginning team of 6 people for expansion
and creation of new programs beginning in spring 1977. Active
interest and development of nursery research programs in
the cooperating departments of Agricultural Engineering,
Forestry, Plant Pathology, Entomology, Landscape Architecture
and the United States Department of Agriculture is giving
expanded breadth and depth to the area of nursery crops
research.
The Future
Traditionally the area of nursery crops has been the slowest
of horticultural fields to innovate and adopt available
technology. The nursery industry has been called "the
last phase of American agriculture left in 19tth century
production." Nationally this is changing with the realization
by corporate conglomerates of the technology. The recent
acquisition of Hines Nursery (a California firm – the
best, and one of the largest nurseries in the United States)
by Weyerhaeuser Corporation symbolizes this change, Nursery
production now stands at $2.1 billion with a $6.5 billion
landscape contracting industry utilizing the materials produced.
Little has been done with advertising, promotion and market
development, and sales techniques to expand the industry
beyond traditional roles. Progressive industry leaders and
nurserymen feel production and potential markets have barely
been tapped with a tripling of the industry possible in
10-15 years.
Ten major areas for future potential development include:
- Cultivar evaluation. Thousands of cultivars of nursery
crops exist yet relatively few are produced in North Carolina.
No formal testing of these materials has established adaptability
to local conditions. Evaluation throughout the state is
needed for nurserymen to select new materials to widen
product markets and to develop specialties. Also evaluation
of the superb native flora of the state for potential
of use under cultivate and landscape conditions is needed.
Many of our finest nursery crops are from this source
ands many remain to be discovered and developed.
- Provenance evaluation. Foresters have recognized for
over a hundred years the importance of seed source in
adaptability and performance of woody plants. The few
investigations that have been conducted with ornamentals
verify this importance and much remains to be done. With
the development of national nurseries and shipment of
plants from a single source to widely varying locations
and environmental conditions this takes on added importance.
- Improved propagation techniques. Probably the most important
limiting factor determining what is produced in North
Carolina is the ability of nurserymen to successfully
propagate them. Many superb plants are exceedingly difficult
or may be handled only by seed thus prohibiting the development
of superior uniform cultivars. Three areas within propagation
that need work are:
- Propagation of native plants. Information of dormancy
and germination techniques for most native woody species
is lacking. Many are rare or produce very little seed.
Vegetative means of reproducing these would allow
wider use and faster production.
- Tissue culture. Large scale rapid multiplication
of plant tissue culture is one of the major transformations
in horticulture in the past decade. Woody plant materials
thus far have not successfully been reproduced by
this ,method and further work is desirable and promising.
- Accelerated growth propagation. With florist crops
and forestry seedlings use of completely controlled
environmental chambers with temperature, photoperiod,
light intensity, CO2, water and nutrient control have
produced seedling plants in one-fifth normal time
and these techniques have moved into commercial production.
Such techniques are badly needed in the nursery industry.
- Media changes. Container production continues to increase
in percentage of production compared to field (ground
bed) production. Nationally a change has occurred from
use of soil as a growing medium to mixes comprised of
various synthetic and organic components. Recent price
changes have altered acceptability of peat as a medium
component. Softwood bark residues are currently being
used by many growers but further work on particle sizes
and macro-and minor-element fertilization programs for
these mixes are needed. In addition, much research is
needed on techniques for successful utilization of hardwood
bark residues that have unique difficulties and remains
relatively unused in the industry.
- Irrigation modifications. Although North Carolina has
a better than average rainfall distribution patterns and
ample groundwater supplies, few nurserymen in field production
now utilize irrigation and depend on natural supplies.
Work on yield responses of field crops is needed to demonstrate
potential benefits. Study of new systems such as trickle
and drip irrigation are needed to provide recommendations
for use of these important water conservation techniques
under North Carolina systems. These techniques also have
great potential for use in commercial and residential
landscape situations.
- Weed control techniques. The single greatest unsolved
problem in container production is adequate chemical weed
control. The variety of crop species, production systems
and weed damage make this area the most difficult of all
weed control problems. Although some success has been
achieved in the past five years, enormous amounts of information
are still badly needed.
- Growth regulants. M Much potential exists for use of
chemicals to manipulate the growth patterns of valuable
woody plant species in intense production systems. Use
has been made of hormones for rooting of cuttings but
further work is needed on materials to cause "pinching
or shearing," lateral bud development for better
plant structure, and regulants to reduce excess growth
in landscape plants for improved maintenance.
- Marketing. Nurserymen have depended on standardized
plants in traditional markets. More plants are "bought"
in the nursery industry than are "promoted and sold."
Major needs in this area include:
- New products. Herbaceous baskets have become a major
product in a short time, but few have attempted use
of woody perennials for year-round use although the
technique although the technique is used in California
by specialists. Turf is now sold as sod rather than
plugs for instant landscape effect. Ground covers
have potential to be produced this way and good markets
exist. Traditional markets have dealt with finished"
specimen plants—potentials exist for liner or
small plant sales for peopled to "grow-their-own."
- New markets. Most products today go to landscape
contractors for commercial landscaping or for new
suburban home construction. Pre-packaged smaller and
less expensive plants for apartment balconies, low-income
housing and trailer house use need to be developed.
These could take the form of kits with landscape plans
or information sheets.
- Retail handling. High losses in shipping and sales
now occur, particularly with container plants. Much
need exists for information on packaging techniques,
factors affecting moisture loss and critical plant
moisture levels.
- Sources and supplies. A major blockage to sales
is poor communication between plant producers and
the landscape architect-landscape contractor-retail
garden center industries. Finding sources of need
materials is a major problem. New tools for communication
should be developed.
- Economic data. Nursery crops are the "last commodity
remaining in which market price has no relationship to
cost of production." Few nurserymen have any idea
what production cost for any given item is and pricing
is arbitrary at best. Much need exists for methods to
consider alternate production systems and realistic pricing
mechanisms. Also statistics are needed on size of the
industry and quantities of individual crops being grown.
- Installation and aftercare. There has been little communication
or concern between plant producers and plant consumers;
and the systems that will allow best production of a crop
(e.g. – lightweight porous soil mixes) may also be
least favorable for survival of those crops when planted
in the landscape. Little experimental data is available
correct techniques of landscape. Little experimental data
is available on correct techniques of landscape plant
care. Recent research has indicated our traditional concepts
of planting techniques, staking, pruning, and watering
may all be incorrect. Millions of dollars of landscape
plants die annually and much need exists ion this area.
Fruit Crops
- Grapes. Muscadine grapes (Vitus rotundifolia Michx.)
are native to North Carolina and southeastern United States.
Interest in commercial production developed around the
turn of the century. The fruit cultivars were selections
from the wild, functional females that required pollination
from male vines. In the early 1900's both USDA and NCSU
scientists began research programs. Their accomplishments
are as follows:
- In the early 1920's and 1930's, both Mr. Dearing
(USDA) and Detjen (NCSU) found perfect-flowered vines.
These vines were used to develop perfect-flowered
"pollinators" that could be planted in vineyards
to pollinate female cultivars as well as produce fruit
themselves.
- In 1948 Mr. Dearing released 15 cultivars. Four
of these were perfect-flowered.
- From 1945 to 1962 Professor C. F. Williams directed
the grape breeding program. His goal was to develop
perfect-flowered cultivars with fruiting characteristics
equal to those of the earlier female cultivars. In
1962 he released 5 cultivars 'Albemarle', 'Pamlico',
'Roanoke', 'Chowan', and 'Magnolia'.
- In the late 1950's and 1960's, the grape industry
expressed a need for cultivars suited for wine production.
The buyers offered relatively high prices for wine
grapes and expressed a preference for the old 'Scuppernong'
cultivar. The cultivar required cross-pollination,
was inconsistent in yield, and ripened unevenly
- In the late 1960's and early 1970's the existing
cultivars plus selections in the breeding program
were evaluated by NCSU scientists for wine production.
One of the cultivars, 'Magnolia', released by Professor
Williams was found to process into good wine. It presently
comprises about 25% of the production of wine grapes
in North Carolina.
- With this increase in potential production, the
old cultural training systems were inadequate. The
standard 8-arm overhead training system was the most
productive but made cultivation, spraying, and harvesting
with machinery difficult. Therefore, the Geneva-Double-Curtain
and Single-Curtain systems were tested, adapted, and
recommended to the growers.
- 'Carlos', a new cultivar that is high-yielding
and from which a good quality wine can be made., was
released in 1970. It is well adapted to North Carolina's
growing conditions and can be mechanically harvested.
The picking characteristics of 'Carlos' make it unique
among muscadine grape cultivars. It's fruit remain
on the vine until ripe or over-ripe. When harvested,
about 90% of the berries have dry stem scars. This
reduces post-harvest fruit rot and incipient fermentation.
It's berries can be removed from the vine with relatively
little force (100-150 gm pull force vs. 450-600 gm
for 'Magnolia' berries) when ripe. 'Carlos' also has
good dessert quality. The dry stem scar makes it desirable
for fresh marketing and shipping.
- Up to 1970, practically all V. rotundifolia wines
were made from cultivars with bronze grapes. In the
late 1960's and early 1970's, the existing cultivars
and breeding-program selections were screened for
their potential for red wine, unfermented juice, and
jelly. A new cultivar, 'Noble', was released as a
result of this study. Fruits of 'Noble' process well
into good wine, unfermented juice, or jelly. It is
self-fruitful, high yielding, and adapted to growing
conditions in North Carolina. Four other black-fruited
selections are being tested further as possible cultivars.
One of these, NC 153-1, shows promise.
- Research that has accelerated the breeding program
includes development of a laboratory technique for
screening for potential wine color. The anthocyanins
(Acy) in black grape hulls were extracted, separated,
purified and identified using paper and TLC Chromatography.
Densitometric measurements of qualities of each of
the ACY were correlated with color scored of wines
developed by the enologist's evaluation panel. One
of the ACY present in small quantities, malvidin-3-5-diglucoside,
was highly correlated with good wine color. Now, only
one berry from a 1 or 2 year old vine can be screened
to determine potential wine color. Heretofore, a vine
had to be grown 3 to 5 years before sufficient berries
were available from which wine could be made and judged
for color. Presently, the inheritance of malvidin-3,5-diglucoside
is being studied using the laboratory techniques described
above.
- Research on cultural aspects includes: a) weed
control programs that virtually eliminate cultivation
in vineyards; b) growth regulators that induce clean-
and uniform-harvesting of cultivars whose berries
are otherwise difficult to remove from the vine without
serious damage to the fruit; c) fertilization, irrigation,
and vine size are now being studied. The results from
these studies are already being incorporated into
fertilizer recommendations
- Blueberries. The history of blueberries in North Carolina
can be seen in accompanying figures. Started in 1928 by
growers from New Jersey using cultivars imported from
New Jersey.
- In the1930's production was adapted to North Carolina
conditions through efforts of Professor Emmett Morrow
(NCSU) working with growers. Devised planting, pruning,
fertilizing, spraying, cultivation, harvesting, packaging,
and marketing systems.
- Around 1950, Professor Morrow (NCSU) and Dr. George
Darrow (USDA) released 4 cultivars resistant to stem
canker that was devastating imported northern cultivars.
One of these cultivars, 'Wolcott' by 1965 comprised
70% of blueberry acreage in North Carolina. The industry
thrived and increased to about 5,000 acres.
- Around 1965, Dr. Mulholland (Plant Pathology) discovered
that the stem canker disease had mutated into 6 virulent
strains. Today the industry is in the same situation
in which it found itself in the late 1940's.
- Dr. G. J. Galletta and the USDA cooperating released
the cultivar 'Morrow' around 1965 and 'Harrison' around
1975. These are resistant to some of the strains of
stem canker. Release of other canker-resistant cultivars
in the new future hopefully will provide a second
stimulus for rapid expansion of the industry
- Other pertinent research within the past 20 years:
- Kushman, Manessm and Ballinger
- System for rapid forced-air cooling of
blueberries.
- Determination of optimum harvest-interval
for quality fruit.
- Determination of influence of crop load
and fruit/leaf ratio upon ripening and quality.
- Relationship of fruit acids and sugars
to keeping quality (see De. Galletta.
- Technique for light-sorting according to
ripeness.
- Helped Dr. Galletta screen Vaccinium species
(collection from throughout eastern United
States) for fruit quality (increase germplasm
base for breeding program).
- Relationship of bruising to decay/shelf-life
of blueberries.
- Dr. Mainland
- Bush training studies.
- Ethephon applications for concentrated ripening.
- Relationship of low winter temperature
to productivity the following season.
- Rooting of cuttings.
- Fertilizing cuttings in cutting beds.
- Weather research to provide insight into
such problems as lack of bloom, pollination
and disease and insect incidence.
- Dr. Galletta
- Made a collection of species from throughout
the eastern United States from Main to Wisconsin
to Arkansas, to Florida and areas in between.
This collection offers a broad germ base for
blueberry breeders throughout the country
to use in the development of new cultivars
with more desirable horticultural qualities
and resistance to pests.
- Seed germination studies using growth regulators.
- Techniques and cultivars to expand blueberry
production into the mountains of North Carolina.
- Strawberries. Some of the most significant research
accomplishments have been:
- Development of cultivars adapted to North Carolina
conditions. Some of these cultivars include 'Blakemore',
'Massey', 'Albritton', 'Atlas', 'Apollo', and 'Earlibelle'.
Although many of the varieties developed were "tailored"
to North Carolina conditions, they have become nationally
important and are used extensively all over the country
as parents as well as for commercial production. The
development of these varieties has helped North Carolina
remain the leading strawberry production state east
of the Mississippi River.
- Weed control research. In the past decade systematic,
effective weed control program has been formulated.
This has taken much of the risk from growing the crop,
has dramatically increased yields and lowered labor
costs and requirements.
- Pest control systems (weed, insect, disease) have
been demonstrated that allow grow incomes of $5,000
or greater per acre from strawberries.
- Apples. Prior to the 1920's, apples in North Carolina
were mainly grown in many
- "home" orchards which included many cultivars
and few trees each. These apples were consumed at
"home" and marketed locally. Transportation
systems other than rail were poor or non-existent.
Commercial orchards began to develop in the early
1920's and 1930's. Extension workers promoted this
new commercial industry via demonstration research
on cost production, pruning practices, soil management,
spraying, and fertilizing. Quality was poor; few tractors
were used; spray and packing house equipment were
primitive. Insects such as the codling moth were rampant.
Apple scab and other diseases added to the deterioration
of fruit quality.
- During the 1940's and 1950's, industry developed
organic and other pesticides that were effective against
insects and diseases. They were more "gentle"
to apple finish and quality. Tractors replaced mules.
Air-blast sprayers were developed. Modern packinghouse
equipment was introduced. The whole marketing system
of fresh produce in the United States was revolutionized
by the development of an efficient, speedy refrigerated
truck transportation system.
- In the early 1950's high-coloring apple strains
which allowed good quality development at our southerly
latitude were introduced. The introductions allowed
North Carolina to take advantage of our early season
environment and be the first to begin commercial harvesting
each season. Because of the economic advantage of
first commercial harvest in the nation, North Carolina's
apple industry has enjoyed a favorite position in
apple marketing.
- Also during the 1950's, Endrin was developed for
control of mouse damage to apple trees. Extension
personnel guided growers on visits to other apple
producing states and Australia to see how other growers
produced apples. In 1960 the first apple processing
plant was established in western North Carolina. Several
others have been established here since that time.
In the mid-1960's research on chemical weed control
was begun. Leaf analysis was researched and made available
to the growers. Because of this, most orchards today
receive B and Ca sprays to reduce incidence of cork
spot and bitter pit of the apples. Fertilizer recommendations
are made using results of both leaf and soil analyses.
- Major apple research involvement by Horticultural
Science began in the 1960's and 1970's. Recently,
determination of the iron-manganese involvement in
the occurrence and correction of internal bark necrosis
has provided a better understanding of this persistent
problem. The development of commercial ethephon-use
recommendations for improving color and maturity has
implications for improving and stabilizing harvested
fruit quality and improving North Carolina's apple
image in the national marketplace. These Horticultural
Science research projects involve the use of elaborate
equipment in the laboratory, refrigerated storage
facilities, and trees and fruit in commercial orchards
and experiment stations. Results from this research
will be reflected in the additional growth of the
North Carolina apple industry in the next 10 to 15
years. The demand for apples early in the marketing
season is there. North Carolina only need provide
high-quality apples to satisfy that demand.
- Peaches
- The North Carolina peach industry became a national
leader as a result of a combined influence of our
early season and environmental conditions and the
development of several new varieties which provided
a continuous availability of maturing peaches from
early summer through late fall. N. C. State University
scientists in the departments of Horticulture and
Plant Pathology have contributed immensely to the
preservation of the peach industry in the state and
are responsible for the present stability of the peach
industry in the southeast. Horticultural and plant
pathology scientists have released a series of 12
high quality peach cultivars adapted to North Carolina
and the eastern United States, with a high level of
bacterial spot resistance. Eight of these cultivars
have a non-browning flesh which is an important new
facet of peach production introduced because of N.
C, State University research. These bacterial spot
resistant, non-browning varieties have been picked
up by peach producers throughout the nation, and now
form a standard for our nation's peach production.
- A serious tree survival problem began plaguing the
southeastern peach industry in the late 1950's and
early1960's. Because of a team effort in the departments
of Soil Science, Plant Pathology and Horticulture
at N. C. State University, significant contributions
have been made in the elucidation of the short tree
life problem with peaches. Our scientists played an
integral role in the development of a 10-point program
which has been instrumental in the successful stabilizing
and modest rejuvenation of peach growing in the southeast.
VEGETABLES
- Vegetables have contributed significantly to the overall
growth of horticulture in North Carolina. Since 1930 the
total value of commercial vegetables has increased from
17 million to in excess of 136 million dollars. In addition,
home gardens contributed an estimated 150 million last
year bringing the total to more than 286 million dollars.
A significant portion of this increase is attributed directly
to a well-planned and coordinated research effort on the
part of the Department of Horticultural Science and allied
departments and the vegetable industry. It is important
to be aware that during this period of greatest expansion
of vegetable sales from North Carolina there was no shortage
of production in other states. The expansion came about
as a result of improved packaging, handling and lower
unit costs from high yields. This has resulted in the
widespread availability of a vast array of high quality,
nutritious fresh vegetables for the entire nation at any
period of the year.
- The role of applied research is emphasized throughout
this report; however, it has been undergirded by significant
efforts of a basic nature: such as, investigations of
intercellular space in sweet potatoes, the roles of growth
regulators in cucumber growth, breeding techniques for
diploid and tetraploid potatoes, inheritance of resistance
to disease organisms.
- Sweet Potato
- The progress of the sweet potato industry in
North Carolina is a classic example of what can
result from a coordinated research effort. Major
advances have been made by sweet potato researchers
at N. C. State University in virtually all phases
of sweet potato production. Prior to 1960 the
average yield of sweet potatoes varied from 100-150
bu./A with a value of 6-10 million dollars annually.
During the past 110-15 years improved varieties
an new technology have elevated North Carolina
to No. 1 national ranking in sweet potato production
with a 1975 value of 43 million dollars.
- The variety 'Jewel', released by the Agricultural
Experiment Station in 1970, has become the most
widely grown variety in the nation in just six
years The incorporation of multiple disease resistance
in new varieties as well as research diseases
and their prevention played a significant part
in increased yields.
- In 1958 pre-sprouting to increase plant production
decrease 'seed' requirements was successfully
introduced as a cultural practice in North Carolina.
- Technological advances have resulted in increased
mechanization of sweet potato production. Mechanical
harvesting aids were introduced to cut down on
labor requirements and time needed for harvest.
A revolutionary packing and grading line developed
by experiment station scientists allows sweet
potatoes fresh from the field to be washed, sized
sorted, graded and packed in one operation drastically
educing field labor and simplifying the entire
harvesting procedures.
- Improved curing and storage techniques and facilities
led further advances. Prior to 1950 suitable storage
as unavailable in North Carolina with overall
capacity of 6 million bushels enabling a year
around availability of high quality produce. Some
of the major achievements in this area were palletized
storage containers with fork handling to reduce
injury and labor, trench heating and humidification,
overhead ventilation, separate curing and storage
rooms, and the clarification of the ideal curing
conditions with respect to temperature, humidity
and length of the curing period.
- The 'blister problem' of 'Jewel' and certain
other cultivars has been greatly reduced by the
inclusion of boron in the fertilizer program.
- The total effect of these research accomplishments
has been reduced costs for greater marketable
yield for the farmer and high quality product
for the consumer.
- Pickle Cucumbers
- Growth in pickling cucumber acreage has paralleled
that of the sweet potato industry. Prior to 1946
there were less than 6,000 acres grown nm the
state. Since that time acreage has increased 5-fold
and in 1975 was 29,500 with a value of $12 million.
Although progress has been made in disease and
insect control, as well as in cultural and variety
development, the pickling cucumber industry has
not enjoyed a major yield breakthrough. Station
scientists are presently cooperating with researchers
in all areas in an effort to overcome the yield
problem. A step in that direction has been the
development and release of 4 cultivars –
Addis, Calypso, Sampson and Liberty. The latter
two varieties are monoecious hybrids and economical
commercial seed production was made possible by
techniques developed by station researchers. Addis,
Calypso and Sampson carry resistance to the major
southern diseases and Calypso, like Liberty, is
also resistant to scab and mosaic.
- Extensive research has been conducted on growth
regulators as an aid to increasing yield. Station
scientists were the first to report the dramatic
effect of 2 chloro-ethylphosphonic acid on sex-expression
of cucumbers. This material, plus chlorflurenol
gives the potential for controlling sex-expression
and increasing yield without the necessity of
insect pollinators.
- A major effort has been in the development of
cultural methods for mechanical harvesting. This
thrust has covered field preparation, spatial
arrangement and plant population, fertilizer and
pesticide application and development of harvest
indices.
- Potatoes
- Potato improvement in the United States has
reached a plateau beyond which major improvement
has become difficult largely because of inbreeding
effects. In the past 10 years 60 introductions
of two highland tropic diploids, S. phureja and
S. stenotomum, the progenitor species of the cultivated
tetraploid of North America, have undergone five
cycles of selection for adaptation to the Temperate
Zone. The population is now day-neutral in photoperiodic
response for tuberization and can be utilized
in hybridization with the common potato S. tuberosum.
The original collections were selected for disease
and insect resistance and for high dry matter.
Evaluation of the adapted population has revealed
resistance to potato virus X, potato virus Y,
late blight, bacterial wilt, root-knot nematode
and wart disease. Dry matter content ranges to
30% within the North Carolina population. This
represents a 2-3 fold increase over present varieties
and potentially is one of the major breakthroughs
in potato breeding.
- Tomatoes
- Tomatoes have contributed significantly to the
vegetable industry in North Carolina. Prior to
1957 production of tomatoes in western North Carolina
was not possible largely because of foliar diseases.
In 1957 the trellised tomato industry was initiated
by University scientists and today it represents
a 5 to 6 million dollar annual income.
- The development and subsequent introduction
of Venus and Saturn, the first varieties resistant
to bacterial wilt, represents a milestone in tomato
research. This work was begun in 1930's and progressed
through three teams of plant breeders before success
became a reality.
- The introduction of plastic films in the fifties
and the subsequent investigations by University
personnel has in a greenhouse tomato.
- Development of cultural systems and securing
production contracts have introduced a new industry
– tomato production for processing –
to North Carolina. Only now in its early beginning
this industry may represent the catalyst in production
for processing for which we've waited so long.
- Future
- In spite of the dramatic growth enjoyed by the
North Carolina vegetable industry over the last
50 years, it's still in its infancy. The yield
barriers that have held production in check in
some areas will slowly but surely be broken. We
are well armed with promising diverse germplasm
that offers great promise for significant increases
in yield (5-10X) of pickling cucumbers and dry
matter content (2-3X) in potatoes. Other breeding
programs are similarly prepared for increasing
yield of high quality products.
- Utilization of new techniques in all areas of
vegetable crop production, from planting to final
product sale, will undergird continued increases
in yield. Vegetables will play an increasingly
important role in the human diet both from the
standpoint of per capita consumption and overall
nutritional intake. This presents a challenge
that we are anxious to undertake and to pursue
with vigor.
NEW AND IMPROVED VARIETIES
- The development of superior varieties of horticultural
crops has been a major research objective for many years.
New varieties producing high yields, better fresh and
processing qualities and resistances to major pests have
been successfully produced.
- Cucumbers
- The pickling cucumber industry has been one of the
most rapidly growing agricultural enterprises in North
Carolina. This growth has been matched by rapid mechanization
of the harvesting process. Superior new pickling varieties
have been developed which are adapted to mechanical
harvesting and which possess resistance to the major
diseases anthracnose, angular leaf spot, downy mildew,
powdery mildew and cucumber mosaic virus. These varieties,
all of which were released in 1975 by R. L. Lower,
C. H. Miller, E. G. Humphries and S. F. Jenkins, are:
- 'Addis' – A monoecious variety with long,
dark green fruit. Suitable for multiple harvest.
- 'Calypso' – A gynoecious hybrid with dark
green, medium fruit. Suitable for either multiple
or once-over harvest. This variety is also resistant
to scab.
- 'Liberty' – An early monoecious variety, suitable
for early commercial and home garden production.
- 'Sampson' – A monoecious hybrid with dark
green, intermediate fruit. Suitable for use with multiple-pick
harvester. Lacks crown fruit and yields well over
a long period.
- Tomato
- 'Venus' – 1970.
- 'Saturn' - 1970. W. R. Henderson, Dept. of Horticultural
Science,
S. F. Jenkins, Jr., Dept. of Plant Pathology.
- These introductions constituted a milestone in the
tomato industry, They were the first cultivars commercially
available combining resistance to bacterial wilt with
desirable horticultural features
- Sweet Potato
- Sweet potato economically constitutes the largest
horticultural commodity grown in North Carolina. Much
of this success stems from our breeding program. Objectives
of this program include high yields, excellent quality,
and disease resistance. Significant introductions
are as follows:
- 'Nugget' – 1960. D. T. Pope, Dept. of
Horticultural Science, L. W. Nielsen, Dept. of
Plant Pathology, and M. W. Hoover, Dept. of Food
Science.
- A high yielding cultivar of good shape and resistance
to internal cork virus and fusarium wilt.
- 'Gem' – 1964. D. T. Pope, L. W. Nielsen
and M. W. Hoover.
- Released for earliness coupled with high quality
and disease resistance.
- 'Porto Rico' – 1966. D. T. Pope and M.
W. Hoover.
- This cultivar offered a significant increase
in yield over earlier strains and had a greatly
improved orange colored flesh.
- 'Jewel' – 1971. D. T. Pope, L. W. Nielsen
and N. C. Miller, Dept. of Food Science.
- The most popular sweet potato in North Carolina
today. It combines excellent storage quality with
a higher yield than 'Porto Rico 198' and resistance
to internal cork virus as well as fusarium wilt.
- 'Copper Skin Jewel' – 1973. D. T. Pope.
- This cultivar gives growers a deeper skin color
for meeting certain market demands along with
the same high qualities of yield, storage and
disease resistance of 'Jewel'
- Irish Potato
- 'Sequoia' – 1939. M. E. Gardner, R. Schmidt,
Dept. of Horticultural Science; and F. J. Stevenson
– USDA.
- Released for the high yielding quality of its day
and resistance to leaf hopper as well as flea beetle.
- 'Plymouth' – 1957. F. L. Haynes, F. D. Cochran,
Dept. Horticultural Science; F. J. Stevenson and R.
V. Akeley – USDA.
- An early maturing, high yielding variety with good
chipping quality. It has resistance to the common
race of late blight and moderate resistance to common
scab.
- 'Boone' – 1957. F. L. Haynes, F. D. Cochran,
F. J. Stevenson and R. V. Akeley.
- A late maturing, high yielding variety adapted to
western North Carolina and immune to the common race
of late blight. It has outstanding keeping quality,
is slow to sprout in common storage.
- Watermelon
- 'Sweet Princess' – 1966. W. R. Henderson,
Dept. of Horticultural Science;
N. W. Winstead and S. F. Jenkins, Jr., Dept. of Plant
Pathology.
- A commercial cultivar released for its high quality
including crispness, high sugar content, general attractiveness,
and small seeds as well as its resistance to fusarium
wilt and anthracnose
- Blueberry
- The blueberry breeding program is a cooperative
effort between the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment
Station and the USDA. It's objectives are the development
of cultivars resistant to cane canker, tolerant to
the bud mite, and high in quality as determined by
size, color, taste, firmness and shipping tolerance.
Climatic tolerance plays an important role since North
Carolina is at the southern fringe of adaptability,
By going back to native species canker resistance
has been incorporated into each of the introductions
listed below:
- 'Wolcott' – 1950. E. B. Morrow, Dept. of Horticultural
Science and G. M. Darrow – USDA.
- A vigorous, highly productive, early-maturing cultivar
with aromatic fruit. Quality is medium.
- 'Murphy' – 1950. E. B. Morrow and G. M. Darrow.
- Vigorous and tough bushes with large berries maturing
early to mid-season.
- 'Angola' – 1951. E. B. Morrow and G. M. Darrow.
- A very early and highly productive cultivar bearing
berries with only a fine scar and high resistance
to cracking. Berry color is dark.
- 'Ivanhoe' – 1951. E. B. Morrow and G. M. Darrow.
- A very vigorous and productive bush bearing large,
light blue berries during mid-season which are resistant
to cracking and of high dessert quality.
- 'Croatan' – 1954. E. B. Morrow and G. M. Darrow.
- A vigorous upright bush with early season berries
high resistant to bud mite and cracking. Berries are
sweet and slightly aromatic.
- 'Morrow' – 1964. G. J. Galletta, Dept. of
Horticultural Science; J. N. Moore and D. H. Scott
– both with the USDA.
A very early cultivar with a concentrated maturity
period well suited to mechanical harvesting. Berry
size and color show improvement over previous introductions.
- 'Harrison' – 1974. G. J. Galletta and A. D.
Draper, USDA.
A midseason berry of greatly improved size, firmness,
color, and keeping quality, as well as consistent
with productivity. Has resistance to stem canker and
bud mite.Vaccinium ashi Reade
The following two cultivars were among the first of
the rabbiteye species introduced. Both are highly
desirable for home gardens.
- 'Garden Blue' – 1958. F. E. Correll and G.
W. Schneider, Department of Horticultural Science;
and D. H. Scott
- A vigorous, early season cultivar with medium size,
light blue berries of good shipping quality.
- 'Menditoo' – 1958. F. E. Correll, G. W. Schneider
and D. H. Scott..
A late season berry maturing over an extended period.
Fruit are very large, dark and juicy with good flavor.
- STRAWBERRY
- A continuous program of strawberry breeding was
initiated in North Carolina in 1893 at the Willard
Experimental Station as a joint effort between the
USDA and the North Carolina Department of Agriculture.
In 1936 the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment
Station entered into the program. Early releases included
'Blakemore' introduced in 1930 by G. M. Darrow of
the USDA and C. H. Dearing of the North Carolina Department
of Agriculture. 'Fairmore', 'Daybreak' and 'Eleanor
Roosevelt' were introduced in 1939 by E.B. Morrow
of the Department of Horticultural Science and G.
M. Darrow. 'Massey' was introduced the following year
by the same researchers and 'Albritton' in 1951 by
E. B. Morrow, G. M. Darrow and D. H. Scott (USDA).
'Fairmore' and 'Daybreak' declined due to virus diseases
and 'Eleanor Roosevelt' due to a dark color. 'Blakemore',
'Massey' and 'Albritton' succeeded; the first of its
superior shipping quality and color, the 'Massey'
because of its large size and good flavor, and the
last due to large size, high flavor and good shipping
quality.
- The objectives of this program continue to be the
development of large, attractive, good shipping, disease
resistant, high flavored, productive cultivars for
the southeast. More recent cultivar introductions
are:
- 'Earlibelle' - 1964. G. .J. Galletta, Department
of Horticultural Science and D. H. Scott – USDA.
An early season cultivar widely grown around the world
at this latitude. It is an excellent plant maker under
a wide range of environmental situations. Fruit are
firm, high in flavor, and of excellent processing
quality.
- 'Atlas'
- 'Apollo' - 1970. G. J. Galletta and D. H. Scott.
These cultivars were developed principally for fresh
fruit shipping and represent a considerable improvement
over
- 'Earlibelle' and 'Albritton' in terms of size and
yield. 'Atlas' is an early-midseason cultivar resistant
to leafspot and leaf scorch while 'Apollo' is a late
season cultivar resistant to powdery mildew and leaf
spot.
- 'Titan' -1972. G. J. Galetta and D. H. Scott.
Extremely large and firm fruit of high quality. Resistant
to leaf spot and leaf scorch. Especially suited for
local and pick-your-own marketing.
- MUSCADINE GRAPE
- Muscadine grapes are native to North America. Scuppernong
was one of the first cultivars selected from the wild
in the 18th century. Around 1900 work was initiated
by the USDA and North Carolina Department of Agriculture
to deveolop perfect flowered cultivars. In 1948, through
the principal efforts of Charles Dearing at the Willard
NCDA Experiment Station, 14 cultivars were introduced
from this program, six of which were perfect flowered.
The work continued as a cooperative program between
N. C. State University and the USDA. Professor C.
F. Williams released five cultivars in 1962, one of
which was 'Magnolia', a principal grape grown in North
Carolina at this time.
- 'Carlos' – Released in 1970 by W. B. Nesbitt
and V. H. Underwood, Department of Horticultural Science,
and D. E. Carroll, Department of Food Science. This
cultivar is being widely planted in North Carolina
today due to its adaptability to mechanical harvesting,
heavy yield, and wine making quality.
- 'Noble' – Released in 1972 by the same group
of researchers for its suitability in making red wine,
juice and jelly.
- 'Dixie' – Released in 1976 by W. B. Nesbitt
and V. H. Underwood of the Department of Horticultural
Science, and John Mortensen, Florida Experiment Station.
Has high resistance to Pierce's disease. Has wide
adaptability and good winter hardiness as well as
low chilling requirements. Excellent fresh fruit quality.
Perfect flowered.
- PEACH
- A peach breeding program was initiated in 1951 with
the following objectives in mind. The resulting cultivars
were released by F. R. Correll, Department of Horticultural
Science and C. N. Clayton, Department of Plant Pathology.
- Develop a series of locally adapted varieties with
a ripening sequence from
very early to very late.
|
